In this literature review, we address the use of cognitive tests, including intelligence tests, i... more In this literature review, we address the use of cognitive tests, including intelligence tests, in the assessment and diagnosis of dyslexia, from both historic and present-day perspectives. We discuss the role of cognitive tests in the operationalization of the concepts of specificity and unexpectedness, two constructs considered essential to the characterization of dyslexia since the publication of early case reports in the late nineteenth century. We review the advantages and disadvantages of several approaches to specific learning disabilities’ identification that are used in schools. We also discuss contemporary debates around the use of standardized cognitive testing in dyslexia evaluations, in particular, the arguments of those who favor an approach to diagnosis based on prior history and the results of a comprehensive evaluation and those who favor an approach based on an individual’s response to intervention. We attempt to explain both perspectives by examining clinical obse...
Specific reading disability has been the subject of formal academic inquiry for over a century. T... more Specific reading disability has been the subject of formal academic inquiry for over a century. Throughout this period, intelligence tests have played a central, but constantly evolving role in the evaluation and diagnosis of this disorder. Within this chapter, we discuss: (a) the current definition of reading disability; (b) a brief historical perspective on the use of intelligence tests to identify and diagnose specific reading disability; (c) present day methods of diagnosing specific reading disability; (d) specific cognitive constructs and their relevance to the accurate diagnosis of reading disability; and (e) the future use of intelligence tests in the identification and diagnosis of a specific reading disability, often referred to as dyslexia.
Learning Disabilities: a Multidisciplinary Journal, 2014
The purpose of this special issue is to explore and explain how a pattern of strengths and weakne... more The purpose of this special issue is to explore and explain how a pattern of strengths and weaknesses (PSW) approach can be useful in the diagnosis and identification of individuals with specific learning disabilities (SLD). To understand a PSW approach, one must first understand the origins of the diagnostic category of SLD. Although some people may think that SLD as a disability category was created by federal legislation in the 1970s, the roots of SLD can be traced back to at least the early 1800s (Hallahan & Mercer, 2002; Hammill, 1993; Wiederholt, 1974). Many of the conclusions drawn in the late 1800s and early 1900s regarding the assessment of students with SLD, as well as the characteristics of these disorders, are still pertinent today.
Chapter 1. General Principles of Evidence-Based Instruction. Chapter 2. Phonological Awareness an... more Chapter 1. General Principles of Evidence-Based Instruction. Chapter 2. Phonological Awareness and Beginning Phonics. Chapter 3. Phonics and Sight Word Instruction. Chapter 4. Reading Fluency. Chapter 5. Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension. Chapter 6. Spelling. Chapter 7. Handwriting and Written Expression. Chapter 8. Basic Math Skills. Chapter 9. Math Problem-Solving.
Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 2020
Today 195 countries exist in the world. The purpose of this review was to provide a global pictur... more Today 195 countries exist in the world. The purpose of this review was to provide a global picture of the services and opportunities for individuals with dyslexia. The intent was not to provide an exhaustive review of each topic, but rather to provide examples of what is occurring in different countries around the world. Through an Internet search, available information was gathered for each country. Examples are provided to illustrate the wide range of available services, media sources, assessment practices, interventions, and attitudes regarding dyslexia around the world. Findings indicate that practices regarding dyslexia are influenced by a number of factors, including culture, the orthography of a language, policies, dyslexia awareness, teacher training, and the availability of assessments and interventions. Although many countries have taken proactive steps to improve the education and overall lives of individuals with dyslexia, in some countries, dyslexia is still not acknowledged or well understood and individuals with this reading disability are stigmatized. Subscribe to LDMJ
The Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III COG) and the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of ... more The Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III COG) and the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement (WJ III ACH; Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001) are revised versions of the WJ-R Tests of Cognitive Abilities and Achievement (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989). These two co-normed instruments form the Woodcock-Johnson III (WJ III), a comprehensive battery of individually administered tests designed to measure various intellectual and academic abilities. The WJ III covers a wide age range (preschool through mature adulthood). Depending on the purpose of the assessment, the WJ III COG and WJ III ACH may be used independently or in conjunction with each other.
One. Overview. Two. How to Administer the WJ III ACH. Three. How to Score the WJ III ACH. Four. H... more One. Overview. Two. How to Administer the WJ III ACH. Three. How to Score the WJ III ACH. Four. How to Interpret the WJ III ACH. Five. Strengths & Weaknesses of the WJ III ACH. Six. Clinical Applications of the WJ III ACH. Seven. Illustrative Case Reports.
More individuals are affected by dyslexia than any other learning disability. The success of stud... more More individuals are affected by dyslexia than any other learning disability. The success of students with dyslexia receiving early identification and evidence-based interventions is dependent upon the knowledge and skills of the school practitioners responsible for their academic programmes. This study investigated knowledge of dyslexia and perceptions of responsibility by administering the Knowledge and Insights of Dyslexia Survey (KIDS) to 243 university students. Survey responses of students (n) majoring in degrees in education (education majors [EM], n = 154) were compared with the responses of students majoring in degrees in architecture (noneducation majors [NEM], n = 89). In addition, the results were further examined between students majoring in General Education, Special Education, and School Psychology. Results indicated no significant differences in knowledge existed between EM and NEM or within EM. Of the topics investigated, participants knew the least about the treatment of dyslexia and demonstrated confusion about the components of appropriate instruction. Analysis of participant definitions revealed pervasive confusion about the characteristics of dyslexia with most believing myths that those with dyslexia "see and read backwards." Additionally, EM rated themselves as being moderately responsible for educating students with dyslexia and believed special educators hold the greatest level of responsibility.
While significant research has been done on the assessment of reading and dyslexia with native En... more While significant research has been done on the assessment of reading and dyslexia with native English speakers, little has been done with English language learners (ELLs). This lack of research creates challenges for practitioners who are working with ELLs in schools. These professionals must make decisions about placements, interventions, and accommodations without having a clear indication of whether ELLs struggle with reading because of lack of English language exposure or a neurological condition, such as dyslexia. The present study explored several known correlates of reading in native English speakers, including Phonological Awareness, Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN), and Processing Speed as predictors of basic reading skills in Spanish-speaking ELLs. The findings suggested that most tasks of Phonological Awareness and RAN were highly correlated to basic reading skills in Spanish-speaking ELLs and that these measures should be part of a dyslexia assessment with this population. When Phonological Awareness and RAN tasks as well as other demographic factors were controlled for, performance on Processing Speed tasks was inconsistently correlated to basic reading skills and was not a significant predictor of reading.
Publisher Summary This chapter describes using the Woodcock–Johnson III discrepancy procedures fo... more Publisher Summary This chapter describes using the Woodcock–Johnson III discrepancy procedures for diagnosis learning disabilities. The WJ III discrepancy procedures are psychometrically preferable to estimated discrepancies for two reasons. First, the WJ III discrepancies do not contain the errors associated with estimated discrepancies. Unlike the WJ III discrepancy procedures, estimated discrepancy procedures do not control for unknown differences that exist when comparing two tests, which are based on different norming samples. Second, the discrepancy procedures used by the WJ III incorporate specific correlation coefficients between all predictor and criterion variables at each age level to provide the best estimates of the population characteristics. The goals of a learning disability evaluation are therefore to determine the factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic that have caused the student to have difficulties; explain how the observed difficulties relate to academic performance; and select appropriate interventions. Finally, the WJ III is based on the belief that the diagnosis of learning disabilities need to be multidimensional in nature—not solely determined by the findings of one single discrepancy procedure or one definitive score. Most importantly, the diagnosis must be informed by sound professional judgment.
This study investigated the performance of 47 sixth-through eighth-grade students with learning d... more This study investigated the performance of 47 sixth-through eighth-grade students with learning disabilities on the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Revised (WJ-R) writing tests (Woodcock &Johnson, 1989). The purposes were to investigate the construct and concurrent validity of these new tests. The students' WJ-R writing cluster scores were compared to those of a random sample of 47 students selected from the WJ-R standardization
In this literature review, we address the use of cognitive tests, including intelligence tests, i... more In this literature review, we address the use of cognitive tests, including intelligence tests, in the assessment and diagnosis of dyslexia, from both historic and present-day perspectives. We discuss the role of cognitive tests in the operationalization of the concepts of specificity and unexpectedness, two constructs considered essential to the characterization of dyslexia since the publication of early case reports in the late nineteenth century. We review the advantages and disadvantages of several approaches to specific learning disabilities’ identification that are used in schools. We also discuss contemporary debates around the use of standardized cognitive testing in dyslexia evaluations, in particular, the arguments of those who favor an approach to diagnosis based on prior history and the results of a comprehensive evaluation and those who favor an approach based on an individual’s response to intervention. We attempt to explain both perspectives by examining clinical obse...
Specific reading disability has been the subject of formal academic inquiry for over a century. T... more Specific reading disability has been the subject of formal academic inquiry for over a century. Throughout this period, intelligence tests have played a central, but constantly evolving role in the evaluation and diagnosis of this disorder. Within this chapter, we discuss: (a) the current definition of reading disability; (b) a brief historical perspective on the use of intelligence tests to identify and diagnose specific reading disability; (c) present day methods of diagnosing specific reading disability; (d) specific cognitive constructs and their relevance to the accurate diagnosis of reading disability; and (e) the future use of intelligence tests in the identification and diagnosis of a specific reading disability, often referred to as dyslexia.
Learning Disabilities: a Multidisciplinary Journal, 2014
The purpose of this special issue is to explore and explain how a pattern of strengths and weakne... more The purpose of this special issue is to explore and explain how a pattern of strengths and weaknesses (PSW) approach can be useful in the diagnosis and identification of individuals with specific learning disabilities (SLD). To understand a PSW approach, one must first understand the origins of the diagnostic category of SLD. Although some people may think that SLD as a disability category was created by federal legislation in the 1970s, the roots of SLD can be traced back to at least the early 1800s (Hallahan & Mercer, 2002; Hammill, 1993; Wiederholt, 1974). Many of the conclusions drawn in the late 1800s and early 1900s regarding the assessment of students with SLD, as well as the characteristics of these disorders, are still pertinent today.
Chapter 1. General Principles of Evidence-Based Instruction. Chapter 2. Phonological Awareness an... more Chapter 1. General Principles of Evidence-Based Instruction. Chapter 2. Phonological Awareness and Beginning Phonics. Chapter 3. Phonics and Sight Word Instruction. Chapter 4. Reading Fluency. Chapter 5. Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension. Chapter 6. Spelling. Chapter 7. Handwriting and Written Expression. Chapter 8. Basic Math Skills. Chapter 9. Math Problem-Solving.
Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 2020
Today 195 countries exist in the world. The purpose of this review was to provide a global pictur... more Today 195 countries exist in the world. The purpose of this review was to provide a global picture of the services and opportunities for individuals with dyslexia. The intent was not to provide an exhaustive review of each topic, but rather to provide examples of what is occurring in different countries around the world. Through an Internet search, available information was gathered for each country. Examples are provided to illustrate the wide range of available services, media sources, assessment practices, interventions, and attitudes regarding dyslexia around the world. Findings indicate that practices regarding dyslexia are influenced by a number of factors, including culture, the orthography of a language, policies, dyslexia awareness, teacher training, and the availability of assessments and interventions. Although many countries have taken proactive steps to improve the education and overall lives of individuals with dyslexia, in some countries, dyslexia is still not acknowledged or well understood and individuals with this reading disability are stigmatized. Subscribe to LDMJ
The Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III COG) and the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of ... more The Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III COG) and the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement (WJ III ACH; Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001) are revised versions of the WJ-R Tests of Cognitive Abilities and Achievement (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989). These two co-normed instruments form the Woodcock-Johnson III (WJ III), a comprehensive battery of individually administered tests designed to measure various intellectual and academic abilities. The WJ III covers a wide age range (preschool through mature adulthood). Depending on the purpose of the assessment, the WJ III COG and WJ III ACH may be used independently or in conjunction with each other.
One. Overview. Two. How to Administer the WJ III ACH. Three. How to Score the WJ III ACH. Four. H... more One. Overview. Two. How to Administer the WJ III ACH. Three. How to Score the WJ III ACH. Four. How to Interpret the WJ III ACH. Five. Strengths & Weaknesses of the WJ III ACH. Six. Clinical Applications of the WJ III ACH. Seven. Illustrative Case Reports.
More individuals are affected by dyslexia than any other learning disability. The success of stud... more More individuals are affected by dyslexia than any other learning disability. The success of students with dyslexia receiving early identification and evidence-based interventions is dependent upon the knowledge and skills of the school practitioners responsible for their academic programmes. This study investigated knowledge of dyslexia and perceptions of responsibility by administering the Knowledge and Insights of Dyslexia Survey (KIDS) to 243 university students. Survey responses of students (n) majoring in degrees in education (education majors [EM], n = 154) were compared with the responses of students majoring in degrees in architecture (noneducation majors [NEM], n = 89). In addition, the results were further examined between students majoring in General Education, Special Education, and School Psychology. Results indicated no significant differences in knowledge existed between EM and NEM or within EM. Of the topics investigated, participants knew the least about the treatment of dyslexia and demonstrated confusion about the components of appropriate instruction. Analysis of participant definitions revealed pervasive confusion about the characteristics of dyslexia with most believing myths that those with dyslexia "see and read backwards." Additionally, EM rated themselves as being moderately responsible for educating students with dyslexia and believed special educators hold the greatest level of responsibility.
While significant research has been done on the assessment of reading and dyslexia with native En... more While significant research has been done on the assessment of reading and dyslexia with native English speakers, little has been done with English language learners (ELLs). This lack of research creates challenges for practitioners who are working with ELLs in schools. These professionals must make decisions about placements, interventions, and accommodations without having a clear indication of whether ELLs struggle with reading because of lack of English language exposure or a neurological condition, such as dyslexia. The present study explored several known correlates of reading in native English speakers, including Phonological Awareness, Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN), and Processing Speed as predictors of basic reading skills in Spanish-speaking ELLs. The findings suggested that most tasks of Phonological Awareness and RAN were highly correlated to basic reading skills in Spanish-speaking ELLs and that these measures should be part of a dyslexia assessment with this population. When Phonological Awareness and RAN tasks as well as other demographic factors were controlled for, performance on Processing Speed tasks was inconsistently correlated to basic reading skills and was not a significant predictor of reading.
Publisher Summary This chapter describes using the Woodcock–Johnson III discrepancy procedures fo... more Publisher Summary This chapter describes using the Woodcock–Johnson III discrepancy procedures for diagnosis learning disabilities. The WJ III discrepancy procedures are psychometrically preferable to estimated discrepancies for two reasons. First, the WJ III discrepancies do not contain the errors associated with estimated discrepancies. Unlike the WJ III discrepancy procedures, estimated discrepancy procedures do not control for unknown differences that exist when comparing two tests, which are based on different norming samples. Second, the discrepancy procedures used by the WJ III incorporate specific correlation coefficients between all predictor and criterion variables at each age level to provide the best estimates of the population characteristics. The goals of a learning disability evaluation are therefore to determine the factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic that have caused the student to have difficulties; explain how the observed difficulties relate to academic performance; and select appropriate interventions. Finally, the WJ III is based on the belief that the diagnosis of learning disabilities need to be multidimensional in nature—not solely determined by the findings of one single discrepancy procedure or one definitive score. Most importantly, the diagnosis must be informed by sound professional judgment.
This study investigated the performance of 47 sixth-through eighth-grade students with learning d... more This study investigated the performance of 47 sixth-through eighth-grade students with learning disabilities on the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Revised (WJ-R) writing tests (Woodcock &Johnson, 1989). The purposes were to investigate the construct and concurrent validity of these new tests. The students' WJ-R writing cluster scores were compared to those of a random sample of 47 students selected from the WJ-R standardization
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