Charles Chang is a linguist who studies speech sounds in the context of language contact and multilingualism. His research is concerned with the cognitive organization of multiple phonological systems, especially the cross-language interactions that occur during second-language learning and first-language attrition. Supervisors: Keith Johnson Address: City University of Hong Kong, Department of Linguistics and Translation, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Speech Prosody (pp. 652–656), Jul 2, 2024
While there is a growing literature on the social meanings of nonmodal voice qualities, most of t... more While there is a growing literature on the social meanings of nonmodal voice qualities, most of the existing studies focus on English and use either naturally produced speech stimuli (which are hard to control acoustically) or a small set of fully synthesized stimuli. This paper reports a perceptual study of the social meanings of creaky voice in Mandarin Chinese, using a large set of resynthesized stimuli featuring 38 talkers (19F) and 6-10 pairs of sentences per talker that differed only in voice quality (creaky vs. modal). Sixty listeners (33F) answered 4 questions about the talker's demographic profile (age, gender, sexuality, education) and gave 19 ratings of personality traits (e.g., confident, professional, charismatic) and interactive potential (e.g., engagingness). Using factor analysis and mixedeffects modeling, our results showed that for male listeners, creaky voice significantly decreased the perceived warmth of male talkers but increased the perceived warmth of female talkers; creaky voice also led to more gender identification errors on female talkers by female listeners and made male talkers sound older. These findings point toward multifaceted social meanings of creaky voice in Mandarin, which extend beyond talker attractiveness and are closely linked to gender, both the talker's and the listener's.
The Cambridge Handbook of Bilingual Phonetics and Phonology (pp. 721–745), 2024
This contribution presents an overview of what is currently known about phonetic and phonological... more This contribution presents an overview of what is currently known about phonetic and phonological first language (L1) attrition and drift in bilingual speech as well as a new theory of bilingual speech, Attrition & Drift in Access, Production, and Perception Theory (ADAPPT), which devotes special attention to L1 change. Attrition and drift are defined and differentiated along several dimensions, including duration of change, source in second language (L2) experience, consciousness, agency, and scope. The chapter addresses why findings of attrition and drift are important for our overall understanding of bilingual speech and draws links between ADAPPT and well-known theories of L2 speech, such as the revised Speech Learning Model (SLM-r), Perceptual Assimilation Model-L2 (PAM-L2), and Second Language Linguistic Perception model (L2LP). More generally, the significance of findings revealing attrition and drift are discussed in relation to different linguistic subfields, such as sociolinguistics, usage-based theory, and generative linguistics. The chapter raises the question of how attrition and drift potentially interact to influence speech production and perception in the bilingual’s L1 over the lifespan; additional directions for future research are pointed out as well.
Formal Approaches to Complexity in Heritage Language Grammars (pp. 15–41), 2024
Twi (Akan) and English can both express diminutive meaning using a morphological strategy (diminu... more Twi (Akan) and English can both express diminutive meaning using a morphological strategy (diminutive suffix) or a syntactic strategy (adjectival construction), but they differ with respect to native-speaker preferences—morphological in Twi, syntactic in English. Each strategy in Twi, moreover, is associated with different types of complexity (morphological, phonological, lexical, discourse-pragmatic, and/or inhibitory). In this study, we examined whether English-dominant, second-generation (G2) speakers of Twi in the US would express diminutive meaning in Twi differently from first-generation (G1) speakers. Results from elicited production suggest that G2 does indeed differ from G1 in this respect: whereas G1 relies on the morphological strategy, G2 relies on the syntactic strategy, producing adjectives post-nominally in accordance with Twi syntax. These results are discussed in light of variation in G2 speakers’ morphological awareness and verbal fluency in Twi. Overall, our findings suggest that both the incremental complexity of linguistic options within a bilingual language repertoire and cross-linguistic influence at the level of preferences play a role in explaining G2’s diminutive production.
The Phonetics and Phonology of Heritage Languages (pp. 208–236), 2024
This chapter takes an individual-differences perspective on the dual sound systems of American he... more This chapter takes an individual-differences perspective on the dual sound systems of American heritage speakers (HSs) of Mandarin Chinese. Based on detailed sociodemographic data and production data on segmentals and suprasegmentals, we build holistic demographic and phonetic profiles for HSs, as well as native speakers and late learners, to explore how different aspects of their two languages (Mandarin, English) may develop in relation to each other and how individual variation in production may be related to socio-demographic factors. Using multiple factor analysis (MFA), we describe the range of these profiles, identify clusters of variation defined by different sociodemographic factors, and argue that some factors (e.g., age of arrival, language(s) spoken at home) have more predictive power for phonetic profiles than others. Overall, our results suggest a significant, if limited, link between socio-demographic factors and production, but only in Mandarin. We conclude by discussing the advantages and disadvantages of group-based and individual-centered approaches.
L3 Development After the Initial State (pp. 49–71), 2023
While previous work on multilingual speech rhythm has found evidence of progressive cross-linguis... more While previous work on multilingual speech rhythm has found evidence of progressive cross-linguistic influence of a first or second language (L1, L2) on a third language (L3), regressive cross-linguistic influence (rCLI) in rhythm remains understudied. In the current study, we tested the roles of order of acquisition and of language similarity in shaping rCLI from syllable-timed Spanish as L3 to stress-timed English and German as L1/L2. In a picture narration task, adult sequential trilinguals (L1 English-L2 German-L3 Spanish, L1 German-L2 English-L3 Spanish) and sequential bilingual controls (L1 English-L2 German, L1 German-L2 English) produced semi-spontaneous speech in each of their languages, which was analyzed in terms of the rhythm metric VarcoV. Results showed evidence of rCLI in English (the typologically more similar language to Spanish) but no evidence of rCLI in German; however, rCLI in English was found only when English was the L1. On the basis of these findings, we propose the Similarity Convergence Hypothesis (SCH), which claims that previously acquired languages that are more similar to a later-acquired language are relatively more vulnerable to rCLI from this language.
Proceedings of the 20th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (pp. 1182–1186), 2023
Alcohol intoxication facilitates inhibition of one's first language (L1) ego, which may lead to r... more Alcohol intoxication facilitates inhibition of one's first language (L1) ego, which may lead to reduced individual differences among second language (L2) speakers under intoxication. This study examined whether, compared to speaking while sober, speaking while intoxicated would reduce individual differences in the acoustic compactness of vowel categories in sequential bilinguals exemplifying diverse L1-L2 pairs (German-English, Korean-English). Vowel compactness in F1 × F2 space varied by language (German, Korean, English) and by vowel, and was generally lower in intoxicated compared to sober speech, both across languages and throughout a bilingual's language repertoire. Crucially, however, there was still a wide range in compactness under intoxication; furthermore, individuals with more compact vowels while sober also produced more compact vowels while intoxicated, in both L1 and L2. Taken together, these findings show patterned variability of vowel compactness, suggesting that articulatory precision is an individual-difference dimension that persists across speaking conditions and throughout the repertoire.
Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America (vol. 8, iss. 1, article 5558), 2023
The current study examined the auditory identifiability of Asian American ethnoracial identity, i... more The current study examined the auditory identifiability of Asian American ethnoracial identity, including the role of listener characteristics and ideologies. Results of an identification experiment showed that the overall accuracy of ethnoracial identification on (East and Southeast) Asian talkers was low, but not the lowest among talker groups and not significantly different from accuracy on Black talkers. There were also significant effects of listeners' ethnoracial identity, gender, and linguistic chauvinism (i.e., disfavoring linguistic diversity in the US). In particular, being Asian or a woman was associated with a higher likelihood of accuracy, whereas greater linguistic chauvinism was, to an extent, associated with a lower likelihood of accuracy. Results of a discrimination experiment additionally showed an effect of listeners' awareness of ethnoracially-based language variation: having this awareness was associated with a higher likelihood of accuracy on discrimination trials with one or more Asian talkers. Taken together, these findings converge with previous results showing an effect of the listener's background on ethnoracial perception and further implicate the listener's sociolinguistic awareness and ideologies.
Recent exposure to a second or foreign language (FL) can influence production and/or perception i... more Recent exposure to a second or foreign language (FL) can influence production and/or perception in the first language (L1), a phenomenon referred to as phonetic drift. The smallest amount of FL exposure shown to effect drift in perception is 1.5 h. The present study examined L1 perception at earlier timepoints of FL exposure, to determine whether the phonetic system is able to resist FL influence at an incipient stage. In a longitudinal pre-test/post-test design, L1 English listeners were exposed to Tagalog under different conditions varying in attention directed to the voice onset time (VOT) plosive contrast in the FL; they then completed an identification task on L1 tokens from VOT continua. In every condition, the likelihood of “voiceless” identifications decreased. This change indicates a shift towards a longer VOT crossover point between “voiced” and “voiceless”, consistent with dissimilatory drift in perception. Listeners in a control condition, however, displayed a similar, albeit less lasting, change in L1 judgments, suggesting that the change arose partly from a task effect. We conclude by discussing directions for future research on phonetic drift in perception.
In this paper, we follow up on previous findings concerning first language (L1) perceptual attrit... more In this paper, we follow up on previous findings concerning first language (L1) perceptual attrition to examine the role of phoneme frequency in influencing variation across L1 contrasts. We hypothesized that maintenance of L1 Korean contrasts (i.e., resistance to attrition) in L1 Korean-L2 English bilinguals would be correlated with frequency, such that better-maintained contrasts would also be more frequent in the L1. To explore this hypothesis, we collected frequency data on three Korean contrasts (/n/-/l/, /t/-/t*/, /s/-/s*/) and compared these data to perceptual attrition data from a speeded sequence recall task testing the perception and phonological encoding of the target contrasts. Results only partially supported the hypothesis. On the one hand, /n/-/l/, the best-maintained contrast, was the most frequent contrast overall. On the other hand, /n/-/l/ also evinced the greatest frequency asymmetry between the two members of the contrast (meaning that it was the least important to perceive accurately); furthermore, /s/-/s*/, which was less well maintained than /t/-/t*/, was actually more frequent than /t/-/t*/. These results suggest that disparities in perceptual attrition across contrasts cannot be attributed entirely to frequency differences. We discuss the implications of the findings for future research examining frequency effects in L1 perceptual change.
Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics (vol. 46, 060002), 2022
The present study examined sociophonetic variation in a small sample of Asian Americans in Boston... more The present study examined sociophonetic variation in a small sample of Asian Americans in Boston, Massachusetts representing four ethnic groups: Chinese, Filipino, Korean, and Vietnamese. Analyzing these speakers’ English production in tasks eliciting both casual and careful speech, we focused on four linguistic features comprising features observed in Eastern New England and in certain Asian American groups. Three features (R-DELETION, L-VOCALIZATION, L/R-CONFLATION) were coded auditorily and one (LOW BACK RAISING of /ɑ/ to /ɔ/) acoustically. Overall, results showed low use of Eastern New England features (R-DELETION, LOW BACK RAISING), high use of L-VOCALIZATION, and no use of L/R-CONFLATION, but also significant differences in specific patterns of use according to ethnicity and speech style. Ethnicity was a significant predictor of the occurrence of R-DELETION and L-VOCALIZATION, and also a significant predictor of first formant (F1) values in the low back vowels, although no clear vowel merger was found. Careful speech showed lower rates of R-DELETION and L-VOCALIZATION and less overlap of the low back vowels as compared to casual speech. These findings reveal similarities and differences in speech production among ethnically diverse Asian Americans and highlight the need for further investigation of phonetic variation within this community.
Applied Linguistics (vol. 43, iss. 5, pp. 845–866), 2022
The lexicon of emotion words is fundamental to interpersonal communication. To examine how emotio... more The lexicon of emotion words is fundamental to interpersonal communication. To examine how emotion word acquisition interacts with societal context, the present study investigated emotion word development in three groups of child Korean users aged 4-13: those who use Korean primarily outside the home as a majority language (MajKCs) or inside the home as a minority language (MinKCs), and those who use Korean both inside and outside the home (KCs). These groups, along with a group of L1 Korean adults, rated the emotional valence of 61 Korean emotion words varying in frequency, valence, and age of acquisition. Results showed KCs, MajKCs, and MinKCs all converging toward adult-like valence ratings by ages 11-13; unlike KCs and MajKCs, however, MinKCs did not show age-graded development and continued to diverge from adults in emotion word knowledge by these later ages. These findings support the view that societal context plays a major role in emotion word development, offering one reason for the intergenerational communication difficulties reported by immigrant families.
Alcohol intoxication is known to affect pitch variability in non-tonal languages. In this study, ... more Alcohol intoxication is known to affect pitch variability in non-tonal languages. In this study, intoxication's effects on pitch were examined in tonal and non-tonal language speakers, in both their native language (L1; German, Korean, Mandarin) and nonnative language (L2; English). Intoxication significantly increased pitch variability in the German group (in L1 and L2), but not in the Korean or Mandarin groups (in L1 or L2), although there were individual differences. These results support the view that pitch control is related to the functional load of pitch and is an aspect of speech production that can be advantageously transferred across languages, overriding the expected effects of alcohol.
PLoS ONE (vol. 16, iss. 12, article e0261146), 2021
Directional response biases due to a conceptual link between space and number, such as a left-to-... more Directional response biases due to a conceptual link between space and number, such as a left-to-right hand bias for increasing numerical magnitude, are known as the SNARC (Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes) effect. We investigated how the SNARC effect for numerosities would be influenced by reading-writing direction, task instructions, and ambient visual environment in four literate populations exemplifying opposite readingwriting cultures-namely, Arabic (right-to-left script) and English (left-to-right script). Monoliterates and biliterates in Jordan and the U.S. completed a speeded numerosity comparison task to assess the directionality and magnitude of a SNARC effect in their numerosity processing. Monoliterates' results replicated previously documented effects of reading-writing direction and task instructions: the SNARC effect found in left-to-right readers was weakened in right-to-left readers, and the left-to-right group exhibited a task-dependency effect (SNARC effect in the smaller condition, reverse SNARC effect in the larger condition). Biliterates' results did not show a clear effect of environment; instead, both biliterate groups resembled English monoliterates in showing a left-to-right, task-dependent SNARC effect, albeit weaker than English monoliterates'. The absence of significant biases in all Arabicreading groups (biliterates and Arabic monoliterates) points to a potential conflict between distinct spatial-numerical mapping codes. This view is explained in terms of the proposed Multiple Competing Codes Theory (MCCT), which posits three distinct spatial-numerical mapping codes (innate, cardinal, ordinal) during numerical processing-each involved at varying levels depending on individual and task factors.
The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics (pp. 581–612), 2021
This chapter provides an overview of research on heritage language (HL) sound systems, with a foc... more This chapter provides an overview of research on heritage language (HL) sound systems, with a focus on areas of convergence and divergence among heritage speakers (HSs), native speakers (NSs) who continue to be dominant in the language, and second language learners (L2ers) who acquired the language later in life. Drawing on data from a wide range of HLs, the chapter addresses both phonetic (articulatory, acoustic, perceptual) and phonological (phonemic, distributional, phonotactic) aspects of the HL sound system, as well as that of the majority language, in light of theories of bilingual speech and variables previously studied as predictors of HSs' linguistic behavior. Despite the diversity of results reviewed, several recurring themes emerge, including intermediate patterning between NSs and L2ers, a higher level of performance in perception than production, and individual variability. In particular, the depth and the accessibility of HSs' knowledge of the HL sound system show considerable variation related to structural linguistic factors, demographic and sociolinguistic factors, input and usage-based factors, and methodological factors. In addition to summarizing the areas in which there is an emerging consensus, the chapter points out a number of remaining questions that pave the way for future research on HL sound systems.
Perception of a nonnative language (L2) is known to be affected by crosslinguistic transfer from ... more Perception of a nonnative language (L2) is known to be affected by crosslinguistic transfer from a listener's native language (L1), but the relative importance of L1 transfer vis-a-vis individual learner differences remains unclear. This study explored the hypothesis that the nature of L1 transfer changes as learners gain experience with the L2, such that individual differences are more influential at earlier stages of learning and L1 transfer is more influential at later stages of learning. To test this hypothesis, novice L2 learners of Korean from diverse L1 backgrounds were examined in a pretest-posttest design with respect to their perceptual acquisition of novel L2 consonant contrasts (the three-way Korean laryngeal contrast among lenis, fortis, and aspirated plosives) and vowel contrasts (/o/-/ʌ/, /u/-/ɨ/). Whereas pretest performance showed little evidence of L1 effects, posttest performance showed significant L1 transfer. Furthermore, pretest performance did not predict posttest performance. These findings support the view that L1 knowledge influences L2 perception dynamically, according to the amount of L2 knowledge available to learners at that time. That is, both individual differences and L1 knowledge play a role in L2 perception, but to different degrees over the course of L2 development.
Perception of a nonnative language (L2) is known to be affected by crosslinguistic transfer from ... more Perception of a nonnative language (L2) is known to be affected by crosslinguistic transfer from a listener's native language (L1), but the relative importance of L1 transfer visa -vis individual learner differences remains unclear. This study explored the hypothesis that the nature of L1 transfer changes as learners gain experience with the L2, such that individual differences are more influential at earlier stages of learning and L1 transfer is more influential at later stages of learning. To test this hypothesis, novice L2 learners of Korean from diverse L1 backgrounds were examined in a pretest-posttest design with respect to their perceptual acquisition of novel L2 consonant contrasts (the three-way Korean laryngeal contrast among lenis, fortis, and aspirated plosives) and vowel contrasts (/o/-/Λ/, /u/-/ USV Symbol Macro(s) 0266 ɦ \m{h} \texthookabove \texthth 0267 ɧ \texthookabove \texththeng 0268 ɨ \B{i} \textbari 0269 ɩ \m{i} \textiota \textiotalatin \textniiota 026A ɪ \textsci 026B ɫ \textltilde 026C ɬ \textbeltl 026D ɭ \textrethookbe \textrtaill 026E ɮ \textlyoghlig \textOlyoghlig 026F ɯ \textturnm 0270 ɰ \textturnmrleg 0271 ɱ \m{m} \textltailm 0272 ɲ \m{j} \textltailn \textnhookleft 0273 ɳ \m{n} \textrtailn 0274 ɴ \textscn 0275 ɵ \textbaro 0276 ɶ \textscoelig 0277 ɷ \textcloseomeg 0278 ɸ \textphi \textniphi 0279 ɹ \textturnr 027A ɺ \textturnlongl 027B ɻ \textrethookbe \textturnrrtai 027C ɼ \textlonglegr 027D ɽ \textrethookbe \textrtailr 027E ɾ \textfishhookr 027F ɿ \textlhti \textlhtlongi 0280 ʀ \textscr 0281 ʁ \textinvscr 0282 ʂ \textrethookbe \textrtails /). Whereas pretest performance showed little evidence of L1 effects, posttest performance showed significant L1 transfer. Furthermore, pretest performance did not predict posttest performance. These findings support the view that L1 knowledge influences L2 perception dynamically, according to the amount of L2 knowledge available to learners at that time. That is, both individual differences and L1 knowledge play a role in L2 perception, but to different degrees over the course of L2 development.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (vol. 146, iss. 2, pp. 956–972), 2019
This study examined the role of acquisition order and crosslinguistic similarity in influencing t... more This study examined the role of acquisition order and crosslinguistic similarity in influencing transfer at the initial stage of perceptually acquiring a tonal third language (L3). Perception of tones in Yoruba and Thai was tested in adult sequential bilinguals representing three different first (L1) and second language (L2) backgrounds: L1 Mandarin-L2 English (MEBs), L1 English-L2 Mandarin (EMBs), and L1 English-L2 intonational/non-tonal (EIBs). MEBs outperformed EMBs and EIBs in discriminating L3 tonal contrasts in both languages, while EMBs showed a small advantage over EIBs on Yoruba. All groups showed better overall discrimination in Thai than Yoruba, but group differences were more robust in Yoruba. MEBs' and EMBs' poor discrimination of certain L3 contrasts was further reflected in the L3 tones being perceived as similar to the same Mandarin tone; however, EIBs, with no knowledge of Mandarin, showed many of the same similarity judgments. These findings thus suggest that L1 tonal experience has a particularly facilitative effect in L3 tone perception, but there is also a facilitative effect of L2 tonal experience. Further, crosslinguistic perceptual similarity between L1/L2 and L3 tones, as well as acoustic similarity between different L3 tones, play a significant role at this early stage of L3 tone acquisition.
Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (pp. 2291–2295), 2019
This study examined the properties of neutral tone (T0) in Mandarin as produced by three groups: ... more This study examined the properties of neutral tone (T0) in Mandarin as produced by three groups: native speakers raised in a Mandarin-speaking environment (L1ers), second language learners raised in an English-speaking environment (L2ers), and heritage language speakers (HLers) exposed to Mandarin from birth but currently dominant in English. T0 production was elicited in both obligatory and non-obligatory contexts, acoustically analyzed, and perceptually evaluated by Mandarin L1ers. Acoustic data indicated little difference among groups in pitch contour, but significant differences in duration, especially in the non-obligatory context. Perceptual data revealed relatively low intelligibility of T0 overall, but also a group difference whereby L2ers tended to outperform HLers in the non-obligatory context; nevertheless, L2ers received the lowest goodness ratings, across both contexts. These results thus suggest that phonetic differences between HLers and L2ers are not unidirectional, but instead vary across aspects of the language in accordance with differences in speakers' linguistic experience.
Linguistic studies focusing on monolinguals have often examined individuals with considerable exp... more Linguistic studies focusing on monolinguals have often examined individuals with considerable experience using another language. Results of a methodological review suggest that conflating ostensibly 'multicompetent' individuals with monolinguals is still common practice. A year-long longitudinal study of speech production demonstrates why this practice is problematic. Adult native English speakers recently arrived in Korea showed significant changes in their production of English stops and vowels (in terms of voice onset time, fundamental frequency, and formant frequencies) during Korean classes and continued to show altered English production a year later, months after their last Korean class. Consistent with an Incidental Processing Hypothesis (IPH) concerning the processing of ambient linguistic input, some changes persisted even in speakers who reported limited active use of Korean in their daily life. These patterns thus suggest that the linguistic experience obtained in a foreign language environment induces and then prolongs restructuring of the native language, making the multicompetent native speaker in a foreign language environment unrepresentative of a monolingual in a native language environment. Such restructuring supports the view that one’s native language continues to evolve in adulthood, highlighting the need for researchers to be explicit about a population under study and to accordingly control (and describe) language background in a study sample.
The Oxford Handbook of Language Attrition (pp. 191–203), 2019
This chapter provides an overview of research on the phonetic changes that occur in one's native ... more This chapter provides an overview of research on the phonetic changes that occur in one's native language (L1) due to recent experience in another language (L2), a phenomenon known as phonetic drift. Through a survey of empirical findings on segmental and suprasegmental acoustic properties, the chapter examines the features of the L1 that are subject to phonetic drift, the cognitive mechanism(s) behind phonetic drift, and the various factors that influence the likelihood of phonetic drift. In short, virtually all aspects of L1 speech are subject to drift, but different aspects do not drift in the same manner, possibly due to multiple routes of L2 influence coexisting at different levels of L1 phonological structure. In addition to the timescale of these changes, the chapter discusses the relationship between phonetic drift and attrition as well as some of the enduring questions in this area.
Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Speech Prosody (pp. 652–656), Jul 2, 2024
While there is a growing literature on the social meanings of nonmodal voice qualities, most of t... more While there is a growing literature on the social meanings of nonmodal voice qualities, most of the existing studies focus on English and use either naturally produced speech stimuli (which are hard to control acoustically) or a small set of fully synthesized stimuli. This paper reports a perceptual study of the social meanings of creaky voice in Mandarin Chinese, using a large set of resynthesized stimuli featuring 38 talkers (19F) and 6-10 pairs of sentences per talker that differed only in voice quality (creaky vs. modal). Sixty listeners (33F) answered 4 questions about the talker's demographic profile (age, gender, sexuality, education) and gave 19 ratings of personality traits (e.g., confident, professional, charismatic) and interactive potential (e.g., engagingness). Using factor analysis and mixedeffects modeling, our results showed that for male listeners, creaky voice significantly decreased the perceived warmth of male talkers but increased the perceived warmth of female talkers; creaky voice also led to more gender identification errors on female talkers by female listeners and made male talkers sound older. These findings point toward multifaceted social meanings of creaky voice in Mandarin, which extend beyond talker attractiveness and are closely linked to gender, both the talker's and the listener's.
The Cambridge Handbook of Bilingual Phonetics and Phonology (pp. 721–745), 2024
This contribution presents an overview of what is currently known about phonetic and phonological... more This contribution presents an overview of what is currently known about phonetic and phonological first language (L1) attrition and drift in bilingual speech as well as a new theory of bilingual speech, Attrition & Drift in Access, Production, and Perception Theory (ADAPPT), which devotes special attention to L1 change. Attrition and drift are defined and differentiated along several dimensions, including duration of change, source in second language (L2) experience, consciousness, agency, and scope. The chapter addresses why findings of attrition and drift are important for our overall understanding of bilingual speech and draws links between ADAPPT and well-known theories of L2 speech, such as the revised Speech Learning Model (SLM-r), Perceptual Assimilation Model-L2 (PAM-L2), and Second Language Linguistic Perception model (L2LP). More generally, the significance of findings revealing attrition and drift are discussed in relation to different linguistic subfields, such as sociolinguistics, usage-based theory, and generative linguistics. The chapter raises the question of how attrition and drift potentially interact to influence speech production and perception in the bilingual’s L1 over the lifespan; additional directions for future research are pointed out as well.
Formal Approaches to Complexity in Heritage Language Grammars (pp. 15–41), 2024
Twi (Akan) and English can both express diminutive meaning using a morphological strategy (diminu... more Twi (Akan) and English can both express diminutive meaning using a morphological strategy (diminutive suffix) or a syntactic strategy (adjectival construction), but they differ with respect to native-speaker preferences—morphological in Twi, syntactic in English. Each strategy in Twi, moreover, is associated with different types of complexity (morphological, phonological, lexical, discourse-pragmatic, and/or inhibitory). In this study, we examined whether English-dominant, second-generation (G2) speakers of Twi in the US would express diminutive meaning in Twi differently from first-generation (G1) speakers. Results from elicited production suggest that G2 does indeed differ from G1 in this respect: whereas G1 relies on the morphological strategy, G2 relies on the syntactic strategy, producing adjectives post-nominally in accordance with Twi syntax. These results are discussed in light of variation in G2 speakers’ morphological awareness and verbal fluency in Twi. Overall, our findings suggest that both the incremental complexity of linguistic options within a bilingual language repertoire and cross-linguistic influence at the level of preferences play a role in explaining G2’s diminutive production.
The Phonetics and Phonology of Heritage Languages (pp. 208–236), 2024
This chapter takes an individual-differences perspective on the dual sound systems of American he... more This chapter takes an individual-differences perspective on the dual sound systems of American heritage speakers (HSs) of Mandarin Chinese. Based on detailed sociodemographic data and production data on segmentals and suprasegmentals, we build holistic demographic and phonetic profiles for HSs, as well as native speakers and late learners, to explore how different aspects of their two languages (Mandarin, English) may develop in relation to each other and how individual variation in production may be related to socio-demographic factors. Using multiple factor analysis (MFA), we describe the range of these profiles, identify clusters of variation defined by different sociodemographic factors, and argue that some factors (e.g., age of arrival, language(s) spoken at home) have more predictive power for phonetic profiles than others. Overall, our results suggest a significant, if limited, link between socio-demographic factors and production, but only in Mandarin. We conclude by discussing the advantages and disadvantages of group-based and individual-centered approaches.
L3 Development After the Initial State (pp. 49–71), 2023
While previous work on multilingual speech rhythm has found evidence of progressive cross-linguis... more While previous work on multilingual speech rhythm has found evidence of progressive cross-linguistic influence of a first or second language (L1, L2) on a third language (L3), regressive cross-linguistic influence (rCLI) in rhythm remains understudied. In the current study, we tested the roles of order of acquisition and of language similarity in shaping rCLI from syllable-timed Spanish as L3 to stress-timed English and German as L1/L2. In a picture narration task, adult sequential trilinguals (L1 English-L2 German-L3 Spanish, L1 German-L2 English-L3 Spanish) and sequential bilingual controls (L1 English-L2 German, L1 German-L2 English) produced semi-spontaneous speech in each of their languages, which was analyzed in terms of the rhythm metric VarcoV. Results showed evidence of rCLI in English (the typologically more similar language to Spanish) but no evidence of rCLI in German; however, rCLI in English was found only when English was the L1. On the basis of these findings, we propose the Similarity Convergence Hypothesis (SCH), which claims that previously acquired languages that are more similar to a later-acquired language are relatively more vulnerable to rCLI from this language.
Proceedings of the 20th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (pp. 1182–1186), 2023
Alcohol intoxication facilitates inhibition of one's first language (L1) ego, which may lead to r... more Alcohol intoxication facilitates inhibition of one's first language (L1) ego, which may lead to reduced individual differences among second language (L2) speakers under intoxication. This study examined whether, compared to speaking while sober, speaking while intoxicated would reduce individual differences in the acoustic compactness of vowel categories in sequential bilinguals exemplifying diverse L1-L2 pairs (German-English, Korean-English). Vowel compactness in F1 × F2 space varied by language (German, Korean, English) and by vowel, and was generally lower in intoxicated compared to sober speech, both across languages and throughout a bilingual's language repertoire. Crucially, however, there was still a wide range in compactness under intoxication; furthermore, individuals with more compact vowels while sober also produced more compact vowels while intoxicated, in both L1 and L2. Taken together, these findings show patterned variability of vowel compactness, suggesting that articulatory precision is an individual-difference dimension that persists across speaking conditions and throughout the repertoire.
Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America (vol. 8, iss. 1, article 5558), 2023
The current study examined the auditory identifiability of Asian American ethnoracial identity, i... more The current study examined the auditory identifiability of Asian American ethnoracial identity, including the role of listener characteristics and ideologies. Results of an identification experiment showed that the overall accuracy of ethnoracial identification on (East and Southeast) Asian talkers was low, but not the lowest among talker groups and not significantly different from accuracy on Black talkers. There were also significant effects of listeners' ethnoracial identity, gender, and linguistic chauvinism (i.e., disfavoring linguistic diversity in the US). In particular, being Asian or a woman was associated with a higher likelihood of accuracy, whereas greater linguistic chauvinism was, to an extent, associated with a lower likelihood of accuracy. Results of a discrimination experiment additionally showed an effect of listeners' awareness of ethnoracially-based language variation: having this awareness was associated with a higher likelihood of accuracy on discrimination trials with one or more Asian talkers. Taken together, these findings converge with previous results showing an effect of the listener's background on ethnoracial perception and further implicate the listener's sociolinguistic awareness and ideologies.
Recent exposure to a second or foreign language (FL) can influence production and/or perception i... more Recent exposure to a second or foreign language (FL) can influence production and/or perception in the first language (L1), a phenomenon referred to as phonetic drift. The smallest amount of FL exposure shown to effect drift in perception is 1.5 h. The present study examined L1 perception at earlier timepoints of FL exposure, to determine whether the phonetic system is able to resist FL influence at an incipient stage. In a longitudinal pre-test/post-test design, L1 English listeners were exposed to Tagalog under different conditions varying in attention directed to the voice onset time (VOT) plosive contrast in the FL; they then completed an identification task on L1 tokens from VOT continua. In every condition, the likelihood of “voiceless” identifications decreased. This change indicates a shift towards a longer VOT crossover point between “voiced” and “voiceless”, consistent with dissimilatory drift in perception. Listeners in a control condition, however, displayed a similar, albeit less lasting, change in L1 judgments, suggesting that the change arose partly from a task effect. We conclude by discussing directions for future research on phonetic drift in perception.
In this paper, we follow up on previous findings concerning first language (L1) perceptual attrit... more In this paper, we follow up on previous findings concerning first language (L1) perceptual attrition to examine the role of phoneme frequency in influencing variation across L1 contrasts. We hypothesized that maintenance of L1 Korean contrasts (i.e., resistance to attrition) in L1 Korean-L2 English bilinguals would be correlated with frequency, such that better-maintained contrasts would also be more frequent in the L1. To explore this hypothesis, we collected frequency data on three Korean contrasts (/n/-/l/, /t/-/t*/, /s/-/s*/) and compared these data to perceptual attrition data from a speeded sequence recall task testing the perception and phonological encoding of the target contrasts. Results only partially supported the hypothesis. On the one hand, /n/-/l/, the best-maintained contrast, was the most frequent contrast overall. On the other hand, /n/-/l/ also evinced the greatest frequency asymmetry between the two members of the contrast (meaning that it was the least important to perceive accurately); furthermore, /s/-/s*/, which was less well maintained than /t/-/t*/, was actually more frequent than /t/-/t*/. These results suggest that disparities in perceptual attrition across contrasts cannot be attributed entirely to frequency differences. We discuss the implications of the findings for future research examining frequency effects in L1 perceptual change.
Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics (vol. 46, 060002), 2022
The present study examined sociophonetic variation in a small sample of Asian Americans in Boston... more The present study examined sociophonetic variation in a small sample of Asian Americans in Boston, Massachusetts representing four ethnic groups: Chinese, Filipino, Korean, and Vietnamese. Analyzing these speakers’ English production in tasks eliciting both casual and careful speech, we focused on four linguistic features comprising features observed in Eastern New England and in certain Asian American groups. Three features (R-DELETION, L-VOCALIZATION, L/R-CONFLATION) were coded auditorily and one (LOW BACK RAISING of /ɑ/ to /ɔ/) acoustically. Overall, results showed low use of Eastern New England features (R-DELETION, LOW BACK RAISING), high use of L-VOCALIZATION, and no use of L/R-CONFLATION, but also significant differences in specific patterns of use according to ethnicity and speech style. Ethnicity was a significant predictor of the occurrence of R-DELETION and L-VOCALIZATION, and also a significant predictor of first formant (F1) values in the low back vowels, although no clear vowel merger was found. Careful speech showed lower rates of R-DELETION and L-VOCALIZATION and less overlap of the low back vowels as compared to casual speech. These findings reveal similarities and differences in speech production among ethnically diverse Asian Americans and highlight the need for further investigation of phonetic variation within this community.
Applied Linguistics (vol. 43, iss. 5, pp. 845–866), 2022
The lexicon of emotion words is fundamental to interpersonal communication. To examine how emotio... more The lexicon of emotion words is fundamental to interpersonal communication. To examine how emotion word acquisition interacts with societal context, the present study investigated emotion word development in three groups of child Korean users aged 4-13: those who use Korean primarily outside the home as a majority language (MajKCs) or inside the home as a minority language (MinKCs), and those who use Korean both inside and outside the home (KCs). These groups, along with a group of L1 Korean adults, rated the emotional valence of 61 Korean emotion words varying in frequency, valence, and age of acquisition. Results showed KCs, MajKCs, and MinKCs all converging toward adult-like valence ratings by ages 11-13; unlike KCs and MajKCs, however, MinKCs did not show age-graded development and continued to diverge from adults in emotion word knowledge by these later ages. These findings support the view that societal context plays a major role in emotion word development, offering one reason for the intergenerational communication difficulties reported by immigrant families.
Alcohol intoxication is known to affect pitch variability in non-tonal languages. In this study, ... more Alcohol intoxication is known to affect pitch variability in non-tonal languages. In this study, intoxication's effects on pitch were examined in tonal and non-tonal language speakers, in both their native language (L1; German, Korean, Mandarin) and nonnative language (L2; English). Intoxication significantly increased pitch variability in the German group (in L1 and L2), but not in the Korean or Mandarin groups (in L1 or L2), although there were individual differences. These results support the view that pitch control is related to the functional load of pitch and is an aspect of speech production that can be advantageously transferred across languages, overriding the expected effects of alcohol.
PLoS ONE (vol. 16, iss. 12, article e0261146), 2021
Directional response biases due to a conceptual link between space and number, such as a left-to-... more Directional response biases due to a conceptual link between space and number, such as a left-to-right hand bias for increasing numerical magnitude, are known as the SNARC (Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes) effect. We investigated how the SNARC effect for numerosities would be influenced by reading-writing direction, task instructions, and ambient visual environment in four literate populations exemplifying opposite readingwriting cultures-namely, Arabic (right-to-left script) and English (left-to-right script). Monoliterates and biliterates in Jordan and the U.S. completed a speeded numerosity comparison task to assess the directionality and magnitude of a SNARC effect in their numerosity processing. Monoliterates' results replicated previously documented effects of reading-writing direction and task instructions: the SNARC effect found in left-to-right readers was weakened in right-to-left readers, and the left-to-right group exhibited a task-dependency effect (SNARC effect in the smaller condition, reverse SNARC effect in the larger condition). Biliterates' results did not show a clear effect of environment; instead, both biliterate groups resembled English monoliterates in showing a left-to-right, task-dependent SNARC effect, albeit weaker than English monoliterates'. The absence of significant biases in all Arabicreading groups (biliterates and Arabic monoliterates) points to a potential conflict between distinct spatial-numerical mapping codes. This view is explained in terms of the proposed Multiple Competing Codes Theory (MCCT), which posits three distinct spatial-numerical mapping codes (innate, cardinal, ordinal) during numerical processing-each involved at varying levels depending on individual and task factors.
The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics (pp. 581–612), 2021
This chapter provides an overview of research on heritage language (HL) sound systems, with a foc... more This chapter provides an overview of research on heritage language (HL) sound systems, with a focus on areas of convergence and divergence among heritage speakers (HSs), native speakers (NSs) who continue to be dominant in the language, and second language learners (L2ers) who acquired the language later in life. Drawing on data from a wide range of HLs, the chapter addresses both phonetic (articulatory, acoustic, perceptual) and phonological (phonemic, distributional, phonotactic) aspects of the HL sound system, as well as that of the majority language, in light of theories of bilingual speech and variables previously studied as predictors of HSs' linguistic behavior. Despite the diversity of results reviewed, several recurring themes emerge, including intermediate patterning between NSs and L2ers, a higher level of performance in perception than production, and individual variability. In particular, the depth and the accessibility of HSs' knowledge of the HL sound system show considerable variation related to structural linguistic factors, demographic and sociolinguistic factors, input and usage-based factors, and methodological factors. In addition to summarizing the areas in which there is an emerging consensus, the chapter points out a number of remaining questions that pave the way for future research on HL sound systems.
Perception of a nonnative language (L2) is known to be affected by crosslinguistic transfer from ... more Perception of a nonnative language (L2) is known to be affected by crosslinguistic transfer from a listener's native language (L1), but the relative importance of L1 transfer vis-a-vis individual learner differences remains unclear. This study explored the hypothesis that the nature of L1 transfer changes as learners gain experience with the L2, such that individual differences are more influential at earlier stages of learning and L1 transfer is more influential at later stages of learning. To test this hypothesis, novice L2 learners of Korean from diverse L1 backgrounds were examined in a pretest-posttest design with respect to their perceptual acquisition of novel L2 consonant contrasts (the three-way Korean laryngeal contrast among lenis, fortis, and aspirated plosives) and vowel contrasts (/o/-/ʌ/, /u/-/ɨ/). Whereas pretest performance showed little evidence of L1 effects, posttest performance showed significant L1 transfer. Furthermore, pretest performance did not predict posttest performance. These findings support the view that L1 knowledge influences L2 perception dynamically, according to the amount of L2 knowledge available to learners at that time. That is, both individual differences and L1 knowledge play a role in L2 perception, but to different degrees over the course of L2 development.
Perception of a nonnative language (L2) is known to be affected by crosslinguistic transfer from ... more Perception of a nonnative language (L2) is known to be affected by crosslinguistic transfer from a listener's native language (L1), but the relative importance of L1 transfer visa -vis individual learner differences remains unclear. This study explored the hypothesis that the nature of L1 transfer changes as learners gain experience with the L2, such that individual differences are more influential at earlier stages of learning and L1 transfer is more influential at later stages of learning. To test this hypothesis, novice L2 learners of Korean from diverse L1 backgrounds were examined in a pretest-posttest design with respect to their perceptual acquisition of novel L2 consonant contrasts (the three-way Korean laryngeal contrast among lenis, fortis, and aspirated plosives) and vowel contrasts (/o/-/Λ/, /u/-/ USV Symbol Macro(s) 0266 ɦ \m{h} \texthookabove \texthth 0267 ɧ \texthookabove \texththeng 0268 ɨ \B{i} \textbari 0269 ɩ \m{i} \textiota \textiotalatin \textniiota 026A ɪ \textsci 026B ɫ \textltilde 026C ɬ \textbeltl 026D ɭ \textrethookbe \textrtaill 026E ɮ \textlyoghlig \textOlyoghlig 026F ɯ \textturnm 0270 ɰ \textturnmrleg 0271 ɱ \m{m} \textltailm 0272 ɲ \m{j} \textltailn \textnhookleft 0273 ɳ \m{n} \textrtailn 0274 ɴ \textscn 0275 ɵ \textbaro 0276 ɶ \textscoelig 0277 ɷ \textcloseomeg 0278 ɸ \textphi \textniphi 0279 ɹ \textturnr 027A ɺ \textturnlongl 027B ɻ \textrethookbe \textturnrrtai 027C ɼ \textlonglegr 027D ɽ \textrethookbe \textrtailr 027E ɾ \textfishhookr 027F ɿ \textlhti \textlhtlongi 0280 ʀ \textscr 0281 ʁ \textinvscr 0282 ʂ \textrethookbe \textrtails /). Whereas pretest performance showed little evidence of L1 effects, posttest performance showed significant L1 transfer. Furthermore, pretest performance did not predict posttest performance. These findings support the view that L1 knowledge influences L2 perception dynamically, according to the amount of L2 knowledge available to learners at that time. That is, both individual differences and L1 knowledge play a role in L2 perception, but to different degrees over the course of L2 development.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (vol. 146, iss. 2, pp. 956–972), 2019
This study examined the role of acquisition order and crosslinguistic similarity in influencing t... more This study examined the role of acquisition order and crosslinguistic similarity in influencing transfer at the initial stage of perceptually acquiring a tonal third language (L3). Perception of tones in Yoruba and Thai was tested in adult sequential bilinguals representing three different first (L1) and second language (L2) backgrounds: L1 Mandarin-L2 English (MEBs), L1 English-L2 Mandarin (EMBs), and L1 English-L2 intonational/non-tonal (EIBs). MEBs outperformed EMBs and EIBs in discriminating L3 tonal contrasts in both languages, while EMBs showed a small advantage over EIBs on Yoruba. All groups showed better overall discrimination in Thai than Yoruba, but group differences were more robust in Yoruba. MEBs' and EMBs' poor discrimination of certain L3 contrasts was further reflected in the L3 tones being perceived as similar to the same Mandarin tone; however, EIBs, with no knowledge of Mandarin, showed many of the same similarity judgments. These findings thus suggest that L1 tonal experience has a particularly facilitative effect in L3 tone perception, but there is also a facilitative effect of L2 tonal experience. Further, crosslinguistic perceptual similarity between L1/L2 and L3 tones, as well as acoustic similarity between different L3 tones, play a significant role at this early stage of L3 tone acquisition.
Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (pp. 2291–2295), 2019
This study examined the properties of neutral tone (T0) in Mandarin as produced by three groups: ... more This study examined the properties of neutral tone (T0) in Mandarin as produced by three groups: native speakers raised in a Mandarin-speaking environment (L1ers), second language learners raised in an English-speaking environment (L2ers), and heritage language speakers (HLers) exposed to Mandarin from birth but currently dominant in English. T0 production was elicited in both obligatory and non-obligatory contexts, acoustically analyzed, and perceptually evaluated by Mandarin L1ers. Acoustic data indicated little difference among groups in pitch contour, but significant differences in duration, especially in the non-obligatory context. Perceptual data revealed relatively low intelligibility of T0 overall, but also a group difference whereby L2ers tended to outperform HLers in the non-obligatory context; nevertheless, L2ers received the lowest goodness ratings, across both contexts. These results thus suggest that phonetic differences between HLers and L2ers are not unidirectional, but instead vary across aspects of the language in accordance with differences in speakers' linguistic experience.
Linguistic studies focusing on monolinguals have often examined individuals with considerable exp... more Linguistic studies focusing on monolinguals have often examined individuals with considerable experience using another language. Results of a methodological review suggest that conflating ostensibly 'multicompetent' individuals with monolinguals is still common practice. A year-long longitudinal study of speech production demonstrates why this practice is problematic. Adult native English speakers recently arrived in Korea showed significant changes in their production of English stops and vowels (in terms of voice onset time, fundamental frequency, and formant frequencies) during Korean classes and continued to show altered English production a year later, months after their last Korean class. Consistent with an Incidental Processing Hypothesis (IPH) concerning the processing of ambient linguistic input, some changes persisted even in speakers who reported limited active use of Korean in their daily life. These patterns thus suggest that the linguistic experience obtained in a foreign language environment induces and then prolongs restructuring of the native language, making the multicompetent native speaker in a foreign language environment unrepresentative of a monolingual in a native language environment. Such restructuring supports the view that one’s native language continues to evolve in adulthood, highlighting the need for researchers to be explicit about a population under study and to accordingly control (and describe) language background in a study sample.
The Oxford Handbook of Language Attrition (pp. 191–203), 2019
This chapter provides an overview of research on the phonetic changes that occur in one's native ... more This chapter provides an overview of research on the phonetic changes that occur in one's native language (L1) due to recent experience in another language (L2), a phenomenon known as phonetic drift. Through a survey of empirical findings on segmental and suprasegmental acoustic properties, the chapter examines the features of the L1 that are subject to phonetic drift, the cognitive mechanism(s) behind phonetic drift, and the various factors that influence the likelihood of phonetic drift. In short, virtually all aspects of L1 speech are subject to drift, but different aspects do not drift in the same manner, possibly due to multiple routes of L2 influence coexisting at different levels of L1 phonological structure. In addition to the timescale of these changes, the chapter discusses the relationship between phonetic drift and attrition as well as some of the enduring questions in this area.
Intoxication and pitch control in tonal and non-tonal language speakers, 2022
Alcohol intoxication is known to affect pitch variability in non-tonal languages. In this study, ... more Alcohol intoxication is known to affect pitch variability in non-tonal languages. In this study, intoxication’s effects on pitch were examined in tonal and non-tonal language speakers, in both their native language (L1; German, Korean, Mandarin) and nonnative language (L2; English). Intoxication significantly increased pitch variability in the German group (in L1 and L2), but not in the Korean or Mandarin groups (in L1 or L2), although there were individual differences. These results support the view that pitch control is related to the functional load of pitch and is an aspect of speech production that can be advantageously transferred across languages, overriding the expected effects of alcohol.
Proceedings of the 20th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Prague 2023, 2023
Alcohol intoxication facilitates inhibition of one's first language (L1) ego, which may lead to r... more Alcohol intoxication facilitates inhibition of one's first language (L1) ego, which may lead to reduced individual differences among second language (L2) speakers under intoxication. This study examined whether, compared to speaking while sober, speaking while intoxicated would reduce individual differences in the acoustic compactness of vowel categories in sequential bilinguals exemplifying diverse L1-L2 pairs (German-English, Korean-English). Vowel compactness in F 1 × F 2 space varied by language (German, Korean, English) and by vowel, and was generally lower in intoxicated compared to sober speech, both across languages and throughout a bilingual's language repertoire. Crucially, however, there was still a wide range in compactness under intoxication; furthermore, individuals with more compact vowels while sober also produced more compact vowels while intoxicated, in both L1 and L2. Taken together, these findings show patterned variability of vowel compactness, suggesting that articulatory precision is an individual-difference dimension that persists across speaking conditions and throughout the repertoire.
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Papers by Charles B Chang