It has been proposed that an even-pacing strategy is optimal for events lasting &... more It has been proposed that an even-pacing strategy is optimal for events lasting <120 s, but this assertion is not well-established. This study tested the hypothesis that even-paced cycling is less challenging than self- or variable-paced cycling. Ten well-trained male cyclists (VO2max, 4.89 ± 0.32 L min(-1)) completed a self-paced (SP) 20-km time trial followed by time- and work-matched even-paced (EP 100% SP mean power) and variable-paced (VP 142 and 72% SP mean power, 1:1.5 high:low power ratio) trials in a random, counterbalanced order. During all trials expired air and heart rate were analysed throughout, blood lactate was sampled every 4 km, and perceptual responses (rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and affect) were assessed every 2 km and post-trial. There were no whole trial statistically significant differences between trials for any of the respiratory variables measured, although there was a trend for higher RER's in VP compared to EP (P = 0.053). Blood lactate was lower in EP compared to VP (P = 0.001) and SP (P = 0.001), and higher in SP compared to VP (P = 0.008). RPE was lower, and affect more positive, in EP compared to both SP and VP (P > 0.05). The results of this study show that, for a time- and work-matched 20-km time trial, an even-paced strategy results in attenuated perturbations in the physiological response and lower perception of effort in comparison to self- and variable-paced strategies.
International journal of sports physiology and performance, Jan 27, 2015
Exercise is known to result in hemodynamic changes in the bi-lateral prefrontal cortex. The aim o... more Exercise is known to result in hemodynamic changes in the bi-lateral prefrontal cortex. The aim of this study was to investigate hemodynamic changes in right and left hemispheres of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during incremental cycling exercise. Following ten minutes rest, nine participants (mean age 26.6 ± 2.5 years, mass 77.5 ± 9.7 kg and stature 1.79 ± 0.9 m) cycled at between 100 and 150 W for four minutes. Thereafter, resistance was increased by 25 W every four minutes until exhaustion. Respiratory exchange and concentrations of oxy- ([HbO2]), deoxy- ([(HHb]) and total haemoglobin ([Hbtot]) in the PFC were continuously measured. Data were averaged for 60-s at rest and preceding VT1, VT2 and volitional exhaustion (EXH) and after five minutes recovery (REC). Subjective ratings of affect were measured at VT1, VT2 and VT1 minus 25W (VT1-25W) and VT2 plus 25W (VT2+25W). There were no between hemisphere differences in [HbO2] or [Hbtot] at rest, VT1 or REC; or in [HHb] at any point. ...
The aim of the study was to assess the reproducibility of pacing strategy, physiological and perc... more The aim of the study was to assess the reproducibility of pacing strategy, physiological and perceptual responses during simulated 20-km cycling time trials. Seventeen well-trained male cyclists ([Formula: see text] = 4.70 ± 0.33 L min(-1)) completed three 20-km time trials on a Velotron Pro cycle ergometer within a maximum duration of 14 days. During all trials power output, cadence and respiratory exchange were recorded throughout, rating of perceived exertion and affective response were recorded every 2-km and capillary blood was sampled and assayed for the determination of lactate concentration every 4-km. Power output data was assigned to 1-km 'bins' and expressed relative to the mean to quantify pacing strategy. Reproducibility of the pacing strategy and the whole trial mean responses was subsequently quantified using typical error (TE) with 90% confidence intervals. The pacing strategy adopted was similar across repeat trials, though there was a higher degree of variability at the start and end of the trial (TE = 6.6 and 6.8% for the first and last 1-km), and a trend for a progressively blunted start on repeat trials. The reproducibility of performance, cardiorespiratory and perceptual measures was good (TE range 1.0-4.0%), but blood lactate exhibited higher variability (TE = 17.7%). The results demonstrate the performance, perceptual and physiological response to self-paced 20-km time trials is reproducible in well-trained cyclists. Future research should acknowledge that variability in pacing strategy at the start and end of a self-paced bout is likely regardless of any intervention employed.
It is widely accepted that warming-up prior to exercise is vital for the attainment of optimum pe... more It is widely accepted that warming-up prior to exercise is vital for the attainment of optimum performance. Both passive and active warm-up can evoke temperature, metabolic, neural and psychology-related effects, including increased anaerobic metabolism, elevated oxygen uptake kinetics and post-activation potentiation. Passive warm-up can increase body temperature without depleting energy substrate stores, as occurs during the physical activity associated with active warm-up. While the use of passive warm-up alone is not commonplace, the idea of utilizing passive warming techniques to maintain elevated core and muscle temperature throughout the transition phase (the period between completion of the warm-up and the start of the event) is gaining in popularity. Active warm-up induces greater metabolic changes, leading to increased preparedness for a subsequent exercise task. Until recently, only modest scientific evidence was available supporting the effectiveness of pre-competition w...
Introduction: Active warm-up has been reported to elevate body temperature1 and increase muscle c... more Introduction: Active warm-up has been reported to elevate body temperature1 and increase muscle contractile performance2, both of which are considered crucial for optimal performance. Although several studies have examined the impact of pre-competition warm-up strategies in swimming, new strategies such as passive heating and dryland-based exercise circuits have emerged which require further investigation. The objective of the present study was to determine the impact of a standardised pool warm-up in combination with various additional warm-up strategies on sprint swimming performance. Method: On four separate occasions, sixteen national age-group (mean ± SD: age = 16 ± 2 yr, height = 176.1 ± 9.8 cm, weight = 68.6 ± 9.5 kg) swimmers completed a standardised, 25 min pool-based warm-up followed by a 30 min pre-race transition phase (including a 15 min simulated marshalling period) before completing a 100 m freestyle time-trial. During the transition phase, the performance of four dif...
International journal of sports physiology and performance
Fast swim times in morning rounds are essential to ensure qualification in evening finals. A sign... more Fast swim times in morning rounds are essential to ensure qualification in evening finals. A significant time-of-day effect in swimming performance has consistently been observed, although physical activity early in the day has been postulated to reduce this effect. The aim of this study was to compare intradaily variation in race-pace performance of swimmers routinely undertaking morning and evening training (MEG) with those routinely undertaking evening training only (EOG). Each group consisted of 8 swimmers (mean +/- SD: age = 15.2 +/- 1.0 and 15.4 +/- 1.4 y, 200-m freestyle time 132.8 +/- 8.4 and 136.3 +/- 9.1 s) who completed morning and evening trials in a randomized order with 48 h in between on 2 separate occasions. Oral temperature, heart rate, and blood lactate were assessed at rest, after a warm-up, after a 150-m race-pace swim, and after a 100-m time trial. Stroke rate, stroke count, and time were recorded for each length of the 150-m and 100-m swims. Both training group...
Performances often vary between the heats and finals of breaststroke swimming competitions possib... more Performances often vary between the heats and finals of breaststroke swimming competitions possibly because the swimmers try to conserve their energy, or for other tactical reasons. Additionally, coaches might advise either a 'positive' or 'even' pace race strategy during the final. The effect of such pacing changes on metabolism (blood lactate, heart rate, ventilation), ratings of perceived exertion, stroke kinematics and turning times have not been investigated. Nine male competitive breaststroke swimmers swam three paced (Aquapacer) 200-m trials, 48 h apart and in random order, at 98%, 100% and at an attempted 102% of their maximal 200-m time-trial speed. Responses in metabolic variables were similar between the 98% and 100% trials, but higher post-exercise blood lactate concentrations and respiratory exchange ratios were observed following the 102% trial. As the pace of trials increased, stroke rate was found to increase proportionately with stroke count. However...
From measures on a battery of fitness tests in elite-standard squash players on different tiers o... more From measures on a battery of fitness tests in elite-standard squash players on different tiers of a national performance program, we examined the relationships among test scores and player rank, and fitness factors important for squash-specific multiple-sprint ability. Thirty-one (20 men, 11 women) squash players from the England Squash performance program participated: n = 12 senior; n = 7 transition; n = 12 talented athlete scholarship scheme (TASS) players. In 1 test session and in a fixed order, the players completed a battery of tests to assess countermovement jump height, reactive strength, change-of-direction speed, and multiple-sprint ability on squash-specific tests and endurance fitness. Two-way analysis of variance compared senior, transition, and TASS players by sex on all measures except jump height where only senior and transition players were compared. Effect size (ES) was calculated for all comparisons. Pearson's correlation examined relationships among test sco...
This study examined the acceleration demands associated with changing direction and the subsequen... more This study examined the acceleration demands associated with changing direction and the subsequent physiological consequences of acceleration during running at 3 submaximal speeds. 10 male professional footballers completed four 600 m running bouts at 3 speeds (2.50, 3.25 & 4.00 m·s(-1)). Each bout was in the format of either: i) 3 laps of a 200 m track (CON), ii) ten 60 m shuttles (S60), iii) twenty 30 m shuttles (S30), or iv) thirty 20 m shuttles (S20). Peak heart rate (HRPEAK), blood lactate concentration (BLa) and RPE (Borg CR-10) were recorded for each bout. A single change of direction required 1.2, 1.5 and 2.0 s of acceleration at running speeds of 2.50, 3.25 and 4.00 m s(-1) respectively. An increase in time spent accelerating produced a linear increase in BLa (r=0.43-0.74) and RPE (r=0.81-0.93) at all speeds. Acceleration increases linearly with change of direction frequency during submaximal shuttle running. Increased time spent accelerating elicits proportional increases ...
It has been proposed that an even-pacing strategy is optimal for events lasting &... more It has been proposed that an even-pacing strategy is optimal for events lasting <120 s, but this assertion is not well-established. This study tested the hypothesis that even-paced cycling is less challenging than self- or variable-paced cycling. Ten well-trained male cyclists (VO2max, 4.89 ± 0.32 L min(-1)) completed a self-paced (SP) 20-km time trial followed by time- and work-matched even-paced (EP 100% SP mean power) and variable-paced (VP 142 and 72% SP mean power, 1:1.5 high:low power ratio) trials in a random, counterbalanced order. During all trials expired air and heart rate were analysed throughout, blood lactate was sampled every 4 km, and perceptual responses (rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and affect) were assessed every 2 km and post-trial. There were no whole trial statistically significant differences between trials for any of the respiratory variables measured, although there was a trend for higher RER's in VP compared to EP (P = 0.053). Blood lactate was lower in EP compared to VP (P = 0.001) and SP (P = 0.001), and higher in SP compared to VP (P = 0.008). RPE was lower, and affect more positive, in EP compared to both SP and VP (P > 0.05). The results of this study show that, for a time- and work-matched 20-km time trial, an even-paced strategy results in attenuated perturbations in the physiological response and lower perception of effort in comparison to self- and variable-paced strategies.
International journal of sports physiology and performance, Jan 27, 2015
Exercise is known to result in hemodynamic changes in the bi-lateral prefrontal cortex. The aim o... more Exercise is known to result in hemodynamic changes in the bi-lateral prefrontal cortex. The aim of this study was to investigate hemodynamic changes in right and left hemispheres of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during incremental cycling exercise. Following ten minutes rest, nine participants (mean age 26.6 ± 2.5 years, mass 77.5 ± 9.7 kg and stature 1.79 ± 0.9 m) cycled at between 100 and 150 W for four minutes. Thereafter, resistance was increased by 25 W every four minutes until exhaustion. Respiratory exchange and concentrations of oxy- ([HbO2]), deoxy- ([(HHb]) and total haemoglobin ([Hbtot]) in the PFC were continuously measured. Data were averaged for 60-s at rest and preceding VT1, VT2 and volitional exhaustion (EXH) and after five minutes recovery (REC). Subjective ratings of affect were measured at VT1, VT2 and VT1 minus 25W (VT1-25W) and VT2 plus 25W (VT2+25W). There were no between hemisphere differences in [HbO2] or [Hbtot] at rest, VT1 or REC; or in [HHb] at any point. ...
The aim of the study was to assess the reproducibility of pacing strategy, physiological and perc... more The aim of the study was to assess the reproducibility of pacing strategy, physiological and perceptual responses during simulated 20-km cycling time trials. Seventeen well-trained male cyclists ([Formula: see text] = 4.70 ± 0.33 L min(-1)) completed three 20-km time trials on a Velotron Pro cycle ergometer within a maximum duration of 14 days. During all trials power output, cadence and respiratory exchange were recorded throughout, rating of perceived exertion and affective response were recorded every 2-km and capillary blood was sampled and assayed for the determination of lactate concentration every 4-km. Power output data was assigned to 1-km 'bins' and expressed relative to the mean to quantify pacing strategy. Reproducibility of the pacing strategy and the whole trial mean responses was subsequently quantified using typical error (TE) with 90% confidence intervals. The pacing strategy adopted was similar across repeat trials, though there was a higher degree of variability at the start and end of the trial (TE = 6.6 and 6.8% for the first and last 1-km), and a trend for a progressively blunted start on repeat trials. The reproducibility of performance, cardiorespiratory and perceptual measures was good (TE range 1.0-4.0%), but blood lactate exhibited higher variability (TE = 17.7%). The results demonstrate the performance, perceptual and physiological response to self-paced 20-km time trials is reproducible in well-trained cyclists. Future research should acknowledge that variability in pacing strategy at the start and end of a self-paced bout is likely regardless of any intervention employed.
It is widely accepted that warming-up prior to exercise is vital for the attainment of optimum pe... more It is widely accepted that warming-up prior to exercise is vital for the attainment of optimum performance. Both passive and active warm-up can evoke temperature, metabolic, neural and psychology-related effects, including increased anaerobic metabolism, elevated oxygen uptake kinetics and post-activation potentiation. Passive warm-up can increase body temperature without depleting energy substrate stores, as occurs during the physical activity associated with active warm-up. While the use of passive warm-up alone is not commonplace, the idea of utilizing passive warming techniques to maintain elevated core and muscle temperature throughout the transition phase (the period between completion of the warm-up and the start of the event) is gaining in popularity. Active warm-up induces greater metabolic changes, leading to increased preparedness for a subsequent exercise task. Until recently, only modest scientific evidence was available supporting the effectiveness of pre-competition w...
Introduction: Active warm-up has been reported to elevate body temperature1 and increase muscle c... more Introduction: Active warm-up has been reported to elevate body temperature1 and increase muscle contractile performance2, both of which are considered crucial for optimal performance. Although several studies have examined the impact of pre-competition warm-up strategies in swimming, new strategies such as passive heating and dryland-based exercise circuits have emerged which require further investigation. The objective of the present study was to determine the impact of a standardised pool warm-up in combination with various additional warm-up strategies on sprint swimming performance. Method: On four separate occasions, sixteen national age-group (mean ± SD: age = 16 ± 2 yr, height = 176.1 ± 9.8 cm, weight = 68.6 ± 9.5 kg) swimmers completed a standardised, 25 min pool-based warm-up followed by a 30 min pre-race transition phase (including a 15 min simulated marshalling period) before completing a 100 m freestyle time-trial. During the transition phase, the performance of four dif...
International journal of sports physiology and performance
Fast swim times in morning rounds are essential to ensure qualification in evening finals. A sign... more Fast swim times in morning rounds are essential to ensure qualification in evening finals. A significant time-of-day effect in swimming performance has consistently been observed, although physical activity early in the day has been postulated to reduce this effect. The aim of this study was to compare intradaily variation in race-pace performance of swimmers routinely undertaking morning and evening training (MEG) with those routinely undertaking evening training only (EOG). Each group consisted of 8 swimmers (mean +/- SD: age = 15.2 +/- 1.0 and 15.4 +/- 1.4 y, 200-m freestyle time 132.8 +/- 8.4 and 136.3 +/- 9.1 s) who completed morning and evening trials in a randomized order with 48 h in between on 2 separate occasions. Oral temperature, heart rate, and blood lactate were assessed at rest, after a warm-up, after a 150-m race-pace swim, and after a 100-m time trial. Stroke rate, stroke count, and time were recorded for each length of the 150-m and 100-m swims. Both training group...
Performances often vary between the heats and finals of breaststroke swimming competitions possib... more Performances often vary between the heats and finals of breaststroke swimming competitions possibly because the swimmers try to conserve their energy, or for other tactical reasons. Additionally, coaches might advise either a 'positive' or 'even' pace race strategy during the final. The effect of such pacing changes on metabolism (blood lactate, heart rate, ventilation), ratings of perceived exertion, stroke kinematics and turning times have not been investigated. Nine male competitive breaststroke swimmers swam three paced (Aquapacer) 200-m trials, 48 h apart and in random order, at 98%, 100% and at an attempted 102% of their maximal 200-m time-trial speed. Responses in metabolic variables were similar between the 98% and 100% trials, but higher post-exercise blood lactate concentrations and respiratory exchange ratios were observed following the 102% trial. As the pace of trials increased, stroke rate was found to increase proportionately with stroke count. However...
From measures on a battery of fitness tests in elite-standard squash players on different tiers o... more From measures on a battery of fitness tests in elite-standard squash players on different tiers of a national performance program, we examined the relationships among test scores and player rank, and fitness factors important for squash-specific multiple-sprint ability. Thirty-one (20 men, 11 women) squash players from the England Squash performance program participated: n = 12 senior; n = 7 transition; n = 12 talented athlete scholarship scheme (TASS) players. In 1 test session and in a fixed order, the players completed a battery of tests to assess countermovement jump height, reactive strength, change-of-direction speed, and multiple-sprint ability on squash-specific tests and endurance fitness. Two-way analysis of variance compared senior, transition, and TASS players by sex on all measures except jump height where only senior and transition players were compared. Effect size (ES) was calculated for all comparisons. Pearson's correlation examined relationships among test sco...
This study examined the acceleration demands associated with changing direction and the subsequen... more This study examined the acceleration demands associated with changing direction and the subsequent physiological consequences of acceleration during running at 3 submaximal speeds. 10 male professional footballers completed four 600 m running bouts at 3 speeds (2.50, 3.25 & 4.00 m·s(-1)). Each bout was in the format of either: i) 3 laps of a 200 m track (CON), ii) ten 60 m shuttles (S60), iii) twenty 30 m shuttles (S30), or iv) thirty 20 m shuttles (S20). Peak heart rate (HRPEAK), blood lactate concentration (BLa) and RPE (Borg CR-10) were recorded for each bout. A single change of direction required 1.2, 1.5 and 2.0 s of acceleration at running speeds of 2.50, 3.25 and 4.00 m s(-1) respectively. An increase in time spent accelerating produced a linear increase in BLa (r=0.43-0.74) and RPE (r=0.81-0.93) at all speeds. Acceleration increases linearly with change of direction frequency during submaximal shuttle running. Increased time spent accelerating elicits proportional increases ...
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Papers by Kevin G Thompson