To the ancient mind water—especially the ‘living’ water of springs, rivers, and lakes—was sacred ... more To the ancient mind water—especially the ‘living’ water of springs, rivers, and lakes—was sacred and possessed a power to cleanse or heal unlike any other natural substance. This paper argues that in the pre-imperial history of bathing, seeking the waters for treatment was a fundamental and widespread act that also had religious implications. The case is made on the basis of ancient texts and archaeological evidence from thermal springs in Italy during the 4th-1st centuries BCE. Several ancient authors who practiced medicine and wrote on medical topics recommended hydrotherapy in various forms (bathing, drinking, sweating in vapour) for a range of maladies and conditions. But authors with interests outside medicine also praised many springs in Italy well known for their therapeutic benefits. Votive objects (anatomical models, figurines, ceramic vessels) and structural remains—from the Po River valley to Apulia—corroborate the popularity of thermal sites and also attest a close association between bathing, healing and ritual acts. The common thread among many of these sites is Etruscan presence, but in the Po valley it is possible that 5th-century BCE remains attest a continuation of older Celtic practices. If the later Roman habit of bathing in the great imperial thermae was devoid of religious observance, it may only be because the water was piped in. Statues of the gods added to the luxurious ambience of Roman baths, but they seem not to have been objects of veneration. This paper suggests that their presence may allude to a more complex and much older synthesis of healing, bathing and religious devotion.
This paper reports the results of a project concerning the 76 Greek and Roman oil lamps in Canter... more This paper reports the results of a project concerning the 76 Greek and Roman oil lamps in Canterbury Museum, all of which were identified according to established typologies. The lamps range in date from the fifth century BCE to the fourth century CE and represent common Greek, Etruscan and Roman lamp types, as well as provincial types from Judaea, Cyprus, Egypt, North Africa and Britain. The collection includes 73 terracotta and three bronze lamps, of which four (two terracotta and two bronze) are modern reproductions. The first part of the paper puts these lamps into context by describing the diverse functions of lamps in the ancient Mediterranean world, such as provision of light in domestic and commercial contexts, use in religious ceremonies and tombs, and use as votive objects and funerary offerings. The second part describes the formation of the collection, and the final part traces the development of lamps and lamp-making in Graeco-Roman antiquity with reference to examples from the collection. A brief catalogue of previously unpublished lamps is also provided.
An experiment was conducted using undergraduate Classical Studies majors and a painted replica of... more An experiment was conducted using undergraduate Classical Studies majors and a painted replica of the richly detailed bull-slaying icon of the Roman Mysteries of Mithras, which flourished during the 1st-4th centuries CE. There are numerous interpretations about the meaning of this iconographic scene, but scholars agree that the icon was important for communicating the tenets of the cult to its members. The experiment tested what level of explanation best facilitated long-term recall of the details and the meaning of the icon. Three groups of subjects received either 1) a narrative explanation of its elements and a description that related these elements to constellations (a familiar concept), or 2) only a narrative explanation of the elements, or 3) no explanation at all. The results show that the longer explanation supports better recall of the meaning of the icon, but that little or no explanation supports better recall of the individual details.
This paper proceeds from the assumption that a more nuanced understanding of amicitia can be achi... more This paper proceeds from the assumption that a more nuanced understanding of amicitia can be achieved from the investigation of certain physical environments where social interaction occurred. In particular, it argues that the development of mithraea in residential contexts in Rome and Ostia in the 2nd century CE and the choice of a biclinium as the main locus for worship are manifestations of a larger contemporary phenomenon, in which convivia became a significant social activity within the domus. It further argues that the increasing popularity of the Mithraic cult in urban areas can be explained by the social opportunities connected to the choice of a biclinium for worship, specifically that a common meal taken in a cult context offered an opportunity for expression of status (both social and religious), for small-scale patronage, and for the cultivation of amicitia through the establishment and development of a social network. The discussion has three parts. The first reviews the history of banqueting in a cult context and the tradition of worship of within the Roman home or other private and exclusive contexts, while the second explores the social implications and possible benefits of a cult meal. The third part examines the evidence for social networks in the cults of Mithras and Jupiter Dolichenus, where a cult meal was a central feature of religious observance. Inscriptions from joint dedications and membership lists from mithraea in Rome and Sentinum and from the temple of Jupiter Dolichenus in Rome attest the long-term commitment of cult devotees, not just to the god, but also to each other.
This article reconciles conflicting mythical and historical representations of the Pons Sublicius... more This article reconciles conflicting mythical and historical representations of the Pons Sublicius in literary sources by examining the bridge in the context of the archaeological evidence for Rome in the 7th and early 6th centuries BCE. Post-flood reconstruction of the bridge in 60 BCE marked its transformation into a religious artifact.
n the recently revived debate on the possible involvement of women in the Mithraic cult the main ... more n the recently revived debate on the possible involvement of women in the Mithraic cult the main points of contention are the value and reliability of limited archaeological and epigraphic evidence and of two passing references to women's involvement in works by Porphyry and Tertullian. At one end of the spectrum, Richard Gordon proposed an alternate "Mithraic" world that not only excluded women but also subverted the female principle entirely. At the other end, Jonathan David challenged the claim that women were excluded from the Mithraic cult and proposed the possibility of lea and mater grades. The first part of this paper tackles the vexed issue of "evidence" by conducting a more thorough and stringent review of the physical evidence than that offered by David on this subject. The conclusion that none of this evidence is unequivocally Mithraic is hardly new; the aim is to put the debate to rest. The second part of this paper explores Porphyry's distinct but ambiguous reference to women as "hyenas" in the context of the Mithraic cult. In this section Gordon's theory of an alternate Mithraic reality is modified in order to reconcile numerous female sex and gender associations apparent in the iconography of the tauroctony scene.
To the ancient mind water—especially the ‘living’ water of springs, rivers, and lakes—was sacred ... more To the ancient mind water—especially the ‘living’ water of springs, rivers, and lakes—was sacred and possessed a power to cleanse or heal unlike any other natural substance. This paper argues that in the pre-imperial history of bathing, seeking the waters for treatment was a fundamental and widespread act that also had religious implications. The case is made on the basis of ancient texts and archaeological evidence from thermal springs in Italy during the 4th-1st centuries BCE. Several ancient authors who practiced medicine and wrote on medical topics recommended hydrotherapy in various forms (bathing, drinking, sweating in vapour) for a range of maladies and conditions. But authors with interests outside medicine also praised many springs in Italy well known for their therapeutic benefits. Votive objects (anatomical models, figurines, ceramic vessels) and structural remains—from the Po River valley to Apulia—corroborate the popularity of thermal sites and also attest a close association between bathing, healing and ritual acts. The common thread among many of these sites is Etruscan presence, but in the Po valley it is possible that 5th-century BCE remains attest a continuation of older Celtic practices. If the later Roman habit of bathing in the great imperial thermae was devoid of religious observance, it may only be because the water was piped in. Statues of the gods added to the luxurious ambience of Roman baths, but they seem not to have been objects of veneration. This paper suggests that their presence may allude to a more complex and much older synthesis of healing, bathing and religious devotion.
This paper reports the results of a project concerning the 76 Greek and Roman oil lamps in Canter... more This paper reports the results of a project concerning the 76 Greek and Roman oil lamps in Canterbury Museum, all of which were identified according to established typologies. The lamps range in date from the fifth century BCE to the fourth century CE and represent common Greek, Etruscan and Roman lamp types, as well as provincial types from Judaea, Cyprus, Egypt, North Africa and Britain. The collection includes 73 terracotta and three bronze lamps, of which four (two terracotta and two bronze) are modern reproductions. The first part of the paper puts these lamps into context by describing the diverse functions of lamps in the ancient Mediterranean world, such as provision of light in domestic and commercial contexts, use in religious ceremonies and tombs, and use as votive objects and funerary offerings. The second part describes the formation of the collection, and the final part traces the development of lamps and lamp-making in Graeco-Roman antiquity with reference to examples from the collection. A brief catalogue of previously unpublished lamps is also provided.
An experiment was conducted using undergraduate Classical Studies majors and a painted replica of... more An experiment was conducted using undergraduate Classical Studies majors and a painted replica of the richly detailed bull-slaying icon of the Roman Mysteries of Mithras, which flourished during the 1st-4th centuries CE. There are numerous interpretations about the meaning of this iconographic scene, but scholars agree that the icon was important for communicating the tenets of the cult to its members. The experiment tested what level of explanation best facilitated long-term recall of the details and the meaning of the icon. Three groups of subjects received either 1) a narrative explanation of its elements and a description that related these elements to constellations (a familiar concept), or 2) only a narrative explanation of the elements, or 3) no explanation at all. The results show that the longer explanation supports better recall of the meaning of the icon, but that little or no explanation supports better recall of the individual details.
This paper proceeds from the assumption that a more nuanced understanding of amicitia can be achi... more This paper proceeds from the assumption that a more nuanced understanding of amicitia can be achieved from the investigation of certain physical environments where social interaction occurred. In particular, it argues that the development of mithraea in residential contexts in Rome and Ostia in the 2nd century CE and the choice of a biclinium as the main locus for worship are manifestations of a larger contemporary phenomenon, in which convivia became a significant social activity within the domus. It further argues that the increasing popularity of the Mithraic cult in urban areas can be explained by the social opportunities connected to the choice of a biclinium for worship, specifically that a common meal taken in a cult context offered an opportunity for expression of status (both social and religious), for small-scale patronage, and for the cultivation of amicitia through the establishment and development of a social network. The discussion has three parts. The first reviews the history of banqueting in a cult context and the tradition of worship of within the Roman home or other private and exclusive contexts, while the second explores the social implications and possible benefits of a cult meal. The third part examines the evidence for social networks in the cults of Mithras and Jupiter Dolichenus, where a cult meal was a central feature of religious observance. Inscriptions from joint dedications and membership lists from mithraea in Rome and Sentinum and from the temple of Jupiter Dolichenus in Rome attest the long-term commitment of cult devotees, not just to the god, but also to each other.
This article reconciles conflicting mythical and historical representations of the Pons Sublicius... more This article reconciles conflicting mythical and historical representations of the Pons Sublicius in literary sources by examining the bridge in the context of the archaeological evidence for Rome in the 7th and early 6th centuries BCE. Post-flood reconstruction of the bridge in 60 BCE marked its transformation into a religious artifact.
n the recently revived debate on the possible involvement of women in the Mithraic cult the main ... more n the recently revived debate on the possible involvement of women in the Mithraic cult the main points of contention are the value and reliability of limited archaeological and epigraphic evidence and of two passing references to women's involvement in works by Porphyry and Tertullian. At one end of the spectrum, Richard Gordon proposed an alternate "Mithraic" world that not only excluded women but also subverted the female principle entirely. At the other end, Jonathan David challenged the claim that women were excluded from the Mithraic cult and proposed the possibility of lea and mater grades. The first part of this paper tackles the vexed issue of "evidence" by conducting a more thorough and stringent review of the physical evidence than that offered by David on this subject. The conclusion that none of this evidence is unequivocally Mithraic is hardly new; the aim is to put the debate to rest. The second part of this paper explores Porphyry's distinct but ambiguous reference to women as "hyenas" in the context of the Mithraic cult. In this section Gordon's theory of an alternate Mithraic reality is modified in order to reconcile numerous female sex and gender associations apparent in the iconography of the tauroctony scene.
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Papers by Alison Griffith