I'm a social & cultural historian. My main period of focus is the seventeenth century. My book, Clothing in 17th-Century Provincial England, was published by Bloomsbury Academic in 2020. I'm now working on a study of Chichester in the 1680s.
In 1629 a tailor John Budd was cited for 'subtraction of tithes' in a case brought against him in... more In 1629 a tailor John Budd was cited for 'subtraction of tithes' in a case brought against him in the peculiar court of the Dean of Chichester by Joshua Peto, rector of the parish of All Saints in The Pallant. Budd claimed that he did not have to pay tithes because he lived in 'certain rooms' in his landlord's house & not a 'whole and entire house'. The witnesses examined in the case were asked questions about the subdivision of houses in the Pallant and whether or not these constituted 'distinct tenements or houses' inhabited by 'distinct families' with their own 'distinct door into the street'. They were also asked to state their own financial worth and means of living and to comment on the relative worth or poverty of their co-witnesses and other neighbours. This article uses these witness statements alongside a range of other documentary evidence to provide a detailed examination of housing and social status in this small city parish in the first half of the 17th century.
In 1968 a remarkable wall painting scheme thought to date from around 1580 to 1600 was uncovered ... more In 1968 a remarkable wall painting scheme thought to date from around 1580 to 1600 was uncovered during the renovation of Ivy House in Fittleworth, West Sussex. Threatened with destruction, four painted wattle-and-daub panels were removed and are now in the collection of the Weald and Downland Open Air Museum in Singleton, West Sussex. This article examines the wall paintings in the context of what we know about domestic wall painting during this period. It considers the relationship between the Ivy House scheme and other forms of decorative design, in particular block-printed wall papers and black-work embroidery. It offers an overview of the structural history of the house and what is known about the social status of its early occupants. Finally, it considers how the room might have been furnished in the late 16th and early 17th centuries and the relationship between domestic interior design and contemporary clothing fashions.
This article is about the clothing of country gentlemen in late seventeenth and early eighteenth ... more This article is about the clothing of country gentlemen in late seventeenth and early eighteenth century England. It begins with an exploration of the London-centric depiction in popular literature of country gentlemen as old fashioned in their manners, dress and lifestyle. It then explores the main elements of male fashion and the role of London in creating and disseminating it. Drawing on surviving clothing accounts, it subsequently offers a detailed analysis of what a number of country gentlemen were wearing during this period, exploring the extent to which they participated in London's fashion culture and their preference for London-bought clothing.
This article examines high fashion culture in late seventeenth-century London and Rye, focusing o... more This article examines high fashion culture in late seventeenth-century London and Rye, focusing on the ways that Rye merchant, Samuel Jeake (1652-1699), and his wife, Elizabeth (1667-1736), engaged with the London fashion market at a time when the transmission of fashion styles was still primarily by word of mouth. As we shall see, both Samuel and Elizabeth were intensely concerned to appear fashionable in provincial Rye. Correspondence between Samuel and Elizabeth and their London relatives shows how fashion information was being communicated between London and Rye and the speed with which clothing fashions changed in the capital. The discussion of Samuel and Elizabeth's engagement with fashion is framed by an analysis of contemporary satirical literature which takes the supposed obsession of the English with fashion as its theme. INTRODUCTION In his Academy of Armory of 1688 Randle Holme described the fashions of English men: The ancient habit used by them was a loose garment called a cloak, which they cast over their other clothes, which is breeches, doublet, hose, shoes, which are as variable in their changes as is the moon; in which respect we are termed the French men's apes, imitating them in all their fantastic devised fashions of garbs so that now the comely cloak, altogether used in the beginning of my time, is now scarce used but by old and grave persons and in place thereof come jumps,1 jackets, wide-bodied coats with sleeves, they according to the fashions being the only dress of English men so that now the saying falls true, he that will describe an English man must draw him naked with a pair of tailor's shears in one hand and a piece of cloth on his arm.2 The supposed fickleness of the English in choosing their clothes was a well-worn theme.3 As early as 1542 Andrew Boorde had satirized the Englishman's obsession with fashion by depicting him naked with a pair of shears in his hand because he could not decide what to wear: 'For now I will wear this and now I will wear that/ Now I will wear I cannot tell what/ All new fashions be pleasant to me'.4 'They tell me they were in fashion last year': Samuel and Elizabeth Jeake and clothing fashions in late seventeenth-century London and Rye.
This article explores attitudes to the clothing of the rural poor in seventeenth-century England.... more This article explores attitudes to the clothing of the rural poor in seventeenth-century England. It begins with an analysis of the representation of rural clothing in country themed ballads, showing how 'homely' country clothing was used to construct an image of a contented and industrious rural population. It then considers how such popular literary representations influenced the way that diarists Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn recorded their encounters with the rural poor. The final part of the article looks at attitudes of the rural poor to their own clothing, drawing on evidence from a range of documentary sources as well as the autobiographical writings of Edward Barlow. In contrast to the stereotypical depiction of the rural poor recorded by ballad writers and elite observers, the article will show that for the rural poor clothing could serve both as an expression of the 'self' and as a potent marker of social difference and moral and material inferiority.
This article uses the household account book of Giles Moore, rector of Horsted Keynes in Sussex f... more This article uses the household account book of Giles Moore, rector of Horsted Keynes in Sussex from 1656 to 1679, to explore clothing production, supply and consumption in rural England in the second half of the seventeenth century. Moore’s detailed record keeping provides an insight into the supply and acquisition of textiles and clothing, as well as the clothing choices of a well-to-do country parson. A careful analysis of this underused source reveals Moore’s attitudes to shopping and clothing through his selection of shops, trade and craftsmen, his concerns about excessive prices, and his cloth, clothing and accessory choices. The article examines the range of shopping opportunities that were available to Moore and which ones he made use of, arguing that he exercised a high degree of consumer choice, made possible by a well-developed shopping culture. As well as the costs of his own clothing, Moore’s book records expenditure on that of his teenage niece, Martha Mayhew. In contrast to Moore’s shopping choices, we can see that Martha’s were considerably more circumscribed. This is consistent with recent studies of seventeenth-century consumption which have identified men rather than women as primary shoppers.
This article examines the clothing of the rural poor in c17th Sussex, considering what men & wome... more This article examines the clothing of the rural poor in c17th Sussex, considering what men & women wore, what their clothing was made of & where they got it from, drawing on a broad range of documentary sources including legal depositions, probate material & overseers' accounts. As would be expected, the clothing of this social group was primarily functional, reflecting limited budgets & arduous working lives. But we can see in the choice of fabric colour, trimmings & accessories that men & women were concerned about their appearance & could achieve a measure of social display, at least in their 'holiday' clothes. The ways in which the poor acquired their clothes were complex, involving them in overlapping spheres of production & distribution, which included home production & shop-bought ready-to-wear, all accommodated within a range of economic survival strategies.
Dwellings, identities & homes: European housing culture from the Viking Age to the Renaissance, 2014
In late medieval England the houses of the wealthier peasantry & those of the aristocracy were bu... more In late medieval England the houses of the wealthier peasantry & those of the aristocracy were built to a standard plan, with a central open hall, residential accommodation at the 'upper' end & service rooms at the 'lower' end. Archaeologists have typically interpreted the spatial hierarchies displayed in these houses as a reflection of the social hierarchies that operated within them. This chapter argues that whilst this was undoubtedly the case in aristocratic households, peasant households were less hierarchically ordered. An alternative interpretation of the domestic plan is offered here, based on a division of the house into perceived 'clean' & 'dirty' ends
In 1589 a statute was passed entitled 'An act against erecting & maintaining cottages' which soug... more In 1589 a statute was passed entitled 'An act against erecting & maintaining cottages' which sought to regulate cottage building & the multiple occupation of cottages. This article examines the context of the act's passed & its relationship to other legislation of the late c16th & early c17th. It then offers a detailed exploration of the way the act's cottage clauses were enforced in c17th Sussex. It also considers the legal status of cottages that were 'continued' & looks at evidence for methods of cottage construction & the range of cottage types.
The Johnsons were a family of merchants who left behind an extensive body of correspondence, cove... more The Johnsons were a family of merchants who left behind an extensive body of correspondence, covering the period 1542-52, preserved in The National Archives. By 1542 the Johnsons & many of their social network were already 'Protestant', although when they converted & why is unknown. Through their letters we get a first-hand account of many of the events of the Reformation, both in England & Europe, & their authors' opinions on them. Using the correspondence, which remains almost completely unknown, this article analyses the nature of their Protestantism within the context of the early Reformation.
This paper explores concepts of death & dying during the period c.1480 to 1560, drawing on vernac... more This paper explores concepts of death & dying during the period c.1480 to 1560, drawing on vernacular medical & devotional literature & legal depositions taken in cases brought before the English court of chancery. It looks at contemporary explanations for the physiological processes that caused the body's death & at the way in which the proximity of death was assessed. For the most part identifying whether an individual was alive or dead was straightforward. However, evidence from legal depositions relating to the death of a mother & child in childbirth reveals that in certain circumstances determining the point of death was more problematic.
A unique insight into the progress & repercussions of the 1551 sweating sickness epidemic is cont... more A unique insight into the progress & repercussions of the 1551 sweating sickness epidemic is contained in the Johnson Papers, the letter & account books of John Johnson, a merchant of the staple & London Draper. Using this correspondence as well as other contemporary accounts, this paper charts the course of the epidemic through London, looking at reactions to it & the religious significance that was attached to it in a country experiencing the rapid religious changes of the Edwardian Reformation.
This paper examines the religious controversies & reforms of the early English Reformation (c.153... more This paper examines the religious controversies & reforms of the early English Reformation (c.1530 to 1560) & considers who they impacted upon the spiritual preparation of the dying. The advent of Lutheran ideas in the 1520s challenged traditional beliefs about the role of the Church & the sacraments in the salvation of the individual & the fate of the soul after death. These ideas were rapidly disseminated through preaching & the transmission of reformist literature in those parts of England with the closest links to the continent, most notably London. Whilst Henry VIII accepted reform only in so far as he regarded it as personally & politically expedient, his son, Edward VI, was committed to the destruction of traditional Catholicism & presided over a rapid succession of religious changes. Through an analysis of Henrician & Edwardian religious policy, reformist literature & deathbed descriptions taken from legal depositions, this paper looks at the interaction between reformist ideas & centrally imposed reform & at how these shaped individuals' religious experience of dying during this period.
In 1629 a tailor John Budd was cited for 'subtraction of tithes' in a case brought against him in... more In 1629 a tailor John Budd was cited for 'subtraction of tithes' in a case brought against him in the peculiar court of the Dean of Chichester by Joshua Peto, rector of the parish of All Saints in The Pallant. Budd claimed that he did not have to pay tithes because he lived in 'certain rooms' in his landlord's house & not a 'whole and entire house'. The witnesses examined in the case were asked questions about the subdivision of houses in the Pallant and whether or not these constituted 'distinct tenements or houses' inhabited by 'distinct families' with their own 'distinct door into the street'. They were also asked to state their own financial worth and means of living and to comment on the relative worth or poverty of their co-witnesses and other neighbours. This article uses these witness statements alongside a range of other documentary evidence to provide a detailed examination of housing and social status in this small city parish in the first half of the 17th century.
In 1968 a remarkable wall painting scheme thought to date from around 1580 to 1600 was uncovered ... more In 1968 a remarkable wall painting scheme thought to date from around 1580 to 1600 was uncovered during the renovation of Ivy House in Fittleworth, West Sussex. Threatened with destruction, four painted wattle-and-daub panels were removed and are now in the collection of the Weald and Downland Open Air Museum in Singleton, West Sussex. This article examines the wall paintings in the context of what we know about domestic wall painting during this period. It considers the relationship between the Ivy House scheme and other forms of decorative design, in particular block-printed wall papers and black-work embroidery. It offers an overview of the structural history of the house and what is known about the social status of its early occupants. Finally, it considers how the room might have been furnished in the late 16th and early 17th centuries and the relationship between domestic interior design and contemporary clothing fashions.
This article is about the clothing of country gentlemen in late seventeenth and early eighteenth ... more This article is about the clothing of country gentlemen in late seventeenth and early eighteenth century England. It begins with an exploration of the London-centric depiction in popular literature of country gentlemen as old fashioned in their manners, dress and lifestyle. It then explores the main elements of male fashion and the role of London in creating and disseminating it. Drawing on surviving clothing accounts, it subsequently offers a detailed analysis of what a number of country gentlemen were wearing during this period, exploring the extent to which they participated in London's fashion culture and their preference for London-bought clothing.
This article examines high fashion culture in late seventeenth-century London and Rye, focusing o... more This article examines high fashion culture in late seventeenth-century London and Rye, focusing on the ways that Rye merchant, Samuel Jeake (1652-1699), and his wife, Elizabeth (1667-1736), engaged with the London fashion market at a time when the transmission of fashion styles was still primarily by word of mouth. As we shall see, both Samuel and Elizabeth were intensely concerned to appear fashionable in provincial Rye. Correspondence between Samuel and Elizabeth and their London relatives shows how fashion information was being communicated between London and Rye and the speed with which clothing fashions changed in the capital. The discussion of Samuel and Elizabeth's engagement with fashion is framed by an analysis of contemporary satirical literature which takes the supposed obsession of the English with fashion as its theme. INTRODUCTION In his Academy of Armory of 1688 Randle Holme described the fashions of English men: The ancient habit used by them was a loose garment called a cloak, which they cast over their other clothes, which is breeches, doublet, hose, shoes, which are as variable in their changes as is the moon; in which respect we are termed the French men's apes, imitating them in all their fantastic devised fashions of garbs so that now the comely cloak, altogether used in the beginning of my time, is now scarce used but by old and grave persons and in place thereof come jumps,1 jackets, wide-bodied coats with sleeves, they according to the fashions being the only dress of English men so that now the saying falls true, he that will describe an English man must draw him naked with a pair of tailor's shears in one hand and a piece of cloth on his arm.2 The supposed fickleness of the English in choosing their clothes was a well-worn theme.3 As early as 1542 Andrew Boorde had satirized the Englishman's obsession with fashion by depicting him naked with a pair of shears in his hand because he could not decide what to wear: 'For now I will wear this and now I will wear that/ Now I will wear I cannot tell what/ All new fashions be pleasant to me'.4 'They tell me they were in fashion last year': Samuel and Elizabeth Jeake and clothing fashions in late seventeenth-century London and Rye.
This article explores attitudes to the clothing of the rural poor in seventeenth-century England.... more This article explores attitudes to the clothing of the rural poor in seventeenth-century England. It begins with an analysis of the representation of rural clothing in country themed ballads, showing how 'homely' country clothing was used to construct an image of a contented and industrious rural population. It then considers how such popular literary representations influenced the way that diarists Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn recorded their encounters with the rural poor. The final part of the article looks at attitudes of the rural poor to their own clothing, drawing on evidence from a range of documentary sources as well as the autobiographical writings of Edward Barlow. In contrast to the stereotypical depiction of the rural poor recorded by ballad writers and elite observers, the article will show that for the rural poor clothing could serve both as an expression of the 'self' and as a potent marker of social difference and moral and material inferiority.
This article uses the household account book of Giles Moore, rector of Horsted Keynes in Sussex f... more This article uses the household account book of Giles Moore, rector of Horsted Keynes in Sussex from 1656 to 1679, to explore clothing production, supply and consumption in rural England in the second half of the seventeenth century. Moore’s detailed record keeping provides an insight into the supply and acquisition of textiles and clothing, as well as the clothing choices of a well-to-do country parson. A careful analysis of this underused source reveals Moore’s attitudes to shopping and clothing through his selection of shops, trade and craftsmen, his concerns about excessive prices, and his cloth, clothing and accessory choices. The article examines the range of shopping opportunities that were available to Moore and which ones he made use of, arguing that he exercised a high degree of consumer choice, made possible by a well-developed shopping culture. As well as the costs of his own clothing, Moore’s book records expenditure on that of his teenage niece, Martha Mayhew. In contrast to Moore’s shopping choices, we can see that Martha’s were considerably more circumscribed. This is consistent with recent studies of seventeenth-century consumption which have identified men rather than women as primary shoppers.
This article examines the clothing of the rural poor in c17th Sussex, considering what men & wome... more This article examines the clothing of the rural poor in c17th Sussex, considering what men & women wore, what their clothing was made of & where they got it from, drawing on a broad range of documentary sources including legal depositions, probate material & overseers' accounts. As would be expected, the clothing of this social group was primarily functional, reflecting limited budgets & arduous working lives. But we can see in the choice of fabric colour, trimmings & accessories that men & women were concerned about their appearance & could achieve a measure of social display, at least in their 'holiday' clothes. The ways in which the poor acquired their clothes were complex, involving them in overlapping spheres of production & distribution, which included home production & shop-bought ready-to-wear, all accommodated within a range of economic survival strategies.
Dwellings, identities & homes: European housing culture from the Viking Age to the Renaissance, 2014
In late medieval England the houses of the wealthier peasantry & those of the aristocracy were bu... more In late medieval England the houses of the wealthier peasantry & those of the aristocracy were built to a standard plan, with a central open hall, residential accommodation at the 'upper' end & service rooms at the 'lower' end. Archaeologists have typically interpreted the spatial hierarchies displayed in these houses as a reflection of the social hierarchies that operated within them. This chapter argues that whilst this was undoubtedly the case in aristocratic households, peasant households were less hierarchically ordered. An alternative interpretation of the domestic plan is offered here, based on a division of the house into perceived 'clean' & 'dirty' ends
In 1589 a statute was passed entitled 'An act against erecting & maintaining cottages' which soug... more In 1589 a statute was passed entitled 'An act against erecting & maintaining cottages' which sought to regulate cottage building & the multiple occupation of cottages. This article examines the context of the act's passed & its relationship to other legislation of the late c16th & early c17th. It then offers a detailed exploration of the way the act's cottage clauses were enforced in c17th Sussex. It also considers the legal status of cottages that were 'continued' & looks at evidence for methods of cottage construction & the range of cottage types.
The Johnsons were a family of merchants who left behind an extensive body of correspondence, cove... more The Johnsons were a family of merchants who left behind an extensive body of correspondence, covering the period 1542-52, preserved in The National Archives. By 1542 the Johnsons & many of their social network were already 'Protestant', although when they converted & why is unknown. Through their letters we get a first-hand account of many of the events of the Reformation, both in England & Europe, & their authors' opinions on them. Using the correspondence, which remains almost completely unknown, this article analyses the nature of their Protestantism within the context of the early Reformation.
This paper explores concepts of death & dying during the period c.1480 to 1560, drawing on vernac... more This paper explores concepts of death & dying during the period c.1480 to 1560, drawing on vernacular medical & devotional literature & legal depositions taken in cases brought before the English court of chancery. It looks at contemporary explanations for the physiological processes that caused the body's death & at the way in which the proximity of death was assessed. For the most part identifying whether an individual was alive or dead was straightforward. However, evidence from legal depositions relating to the death of a mother & child in childbirth reveals that in certain circumstances determining the point of death was more problematic.
A unique insight into the progress & repercussions of the 1551 sweating sickness epidemic is cont... more A unique insight into the progress & repercussions of the 1551 sweating sickness epidemic is contained in the Johnson Papers, the letter & account books of John Johnson, a merchant of the staple & London Draper. Using this correspondence as well as other contemporary accounts, this paper charts the course of the epidemic through London, looking at reactions to it & the religious significance that was attached to it in a country experiencing the rapid religious changes of the Edwardian Reformation.
This paper examines the religious controversies & reforms of the early English Reformation (c.153... more This paper examines the religious controversies & reforms of the early English Reformation (c.1530 to 1560) & considers who they impacted upon the spiritual preparation of the dying. The advent of Lutheran ideas in the 1520s challenged traditional beliefs about the role of the Church & the sacraments in the salvation of the individual & the fate of the soul after death. These ideas were rapidly disseminated through preaching & the transmission of reformist literature in those parts of England with the closest links to the continent, most notably London. Whilst Henry VIII accepted reform only in so far as he regarded it as personally & politically expedient, his son, Edward VI, was committed to the destruction of traditional Catholicism & presided over a rapid succession of religious changes. Through an analysis of Henrician & Edwardian religious policy, reformist literature & deathbed descriptions taken from legal depositions, this paper looks at the interaction between reformist ideas & centrally imposed reform & at how these shaped individuals' religious experience of dying during this period.
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