Ever since hyperosmotic agents, and in particular mannitol, were first introduced for clinical us... more Ever since hyperosmotic agents, and in particular mannitol, were first introduced for clinical use, the mechanism by which they reduce intracranial pressure (ICP), increase cerebral perfusion pressure, and enhance cerebral blood flow (CBF) has remained controversial (Brown et al, 1979). Caution has recently been urged regarding the use of mannitol during states of raised ICP and impaired autoregulation such as occur following head injury. The reason for this concern is that in patients with normal ICP, acute increases in ICP have been noted during and after administration of hyperosmotic agents (Cottrell et al., 1977). Researchers have therefore suggested (but not demonstrated) that in patients with elevated ICP, mannitol, by increasing cerebral blood volume (CBV) early in the infusion, may in fact transiently aggravate intracranial hypertension. On the other hand, hyperventilation is well known to cause cerebral vasoconstriction via a decrease in PaCO2, thereby decreasing CBF and CBV, and hence ICP. The present study was therefore undertaken to compare the effects on ICP of a bolus infusion of mannitol at various levels of PaCO2 in two groups of dogs: those with induced intracranial hypertension and those without. The study was approved by the MNI Animal Care Committee.
Rapid administration of mannitol in individuals with normal intracranial pressure (ICP) causes an... more Rapid administration of mannitol in individuals with normal intracranial pressure (ICP) causes an initial increase in ICP (Cottrell et al. 1979). In contrast, it has recently been demonstrated that a mannitol bolus rapidly reduces ICP in animals with intracranial hypertension (Abou-Madi et al. 1987). In both situations, mannitol’s initial impact on ICP appeared to derive from its vascular rather than its osmotic effect. This study compares the relationship between ICP and hemodynamic changes following bolus administration of mannitol: 1 — In dogs with normal ICP. 2 — In dogs with experimentally induced intracranial hypertension.
... As an example, ferrets manually restrained showed sig-nificant increase in their plasma conce... more ... As an example, ferrets manually restrained showed sig-nificant increase in their plasma concentration of corti-sol and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and a decrease in α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH), whereas isoflurane anesthesia resulted in signifi-...
OBJECTIVE To describe and to establish normative data for the foveae of diurnal birds of prey usi... more OBJECTIVE To describe and to establish normative data for the foveae of diurnal birds of prey using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). METHODS All animals (9 red-tailed hawks, 3 Cooper's hawks, 3 American kestrels, 1 sharp-shinned hawk, and 1 broad-winged hawk) had an ophthalmic examination performed with slit lamp biomicroscopy and indirect ophthalmoscopy. Following ophthalmic examination, SD-OCT was performed in each eye that had a visible fundus and normal fovea on SD-OCT. Temporal foveae depth, central foveae depth, pecten-temporal foveae distance, and pecten-central foveae distance (PCFD) were measured using SD-OCT. Differences in measured outcomes between species were determined using generalized linear mixed effects models. RESULTS The central foveae (mean ± SD) displayed a small but significant depth variation between species (P = .002) and was deepest in red-tailed hawks (293 ± 16 µm), followed by American kestrels (260 ± 12 µm), broad-winged hawks (256 ± 16 µm), Cooper's hawks (250 ± 9 µm), and sharp-shinned hawks (239 ± 16 µm). The temporal foveae were shallower than the central foveae in all species tested, and there was a significant variation between species (P < .001). The temporal foveae (mean ± SD) were deepest in American kestrels (137 ± 8 µm), followed by red-tailed hawks (129 ± 3 µm), broad-winged hawks (59.5 ± 3.5 µm), Cooper's hawks (20.3 ± 6.4 µm), and sharp-shinned hawks (17.5 ± 0.7 µm). Pecten-temporal foveae distance was approximately 30% shorter than PCFD in all species. There were no differences in the parameters tested between the eyes within each species (P ≥ .47). CONCLUSION Normative foveae SD-OCT data were obtained in four species of diurnal birds of prey. Further studies are warranted to provide structural and functional information regarding normal and pathologic changes that can affect the foveae.
Abstract: The role of wildlife as a source of zoonotic Salmonella transmission is poorly understo... more Abstract: The role of wildlife as a source of zoonotic Salmonella transmission is poorly understood, as are the clinical implications of this pathogen among wildlife species. Wildlife hospitals represent an important location to conduct Salmonella surveillance, given the wide variety of species admitted for medical and surgical care. Our objectives were to estimate the prevalence of fecal Salmonella shedding among wildlife admitted to a veterinary medical teaching hospital, to identify risk factors for infection, and to fully characterize the isolates. Voided fecal samples (birds and mammals) and cloacal swab samples (reptiles and amphibians) were collected between May 2018 and March 2020. Standard bacteriologic culture methods were used to detect Salmonella, and isolates were characterized via serotyping, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and whole-genome sequencing. Samples were collected from 348 wildlife patients representing 74 wildlife species, and the apparent prevalence of fecal Salmonella shedding was 1.4% (5/348; 95% confidence interval, 0.5–3.3%). Four serotypes were identified, and isolates were phenotypically susceptible to all antimicrobial agents tested. Two isolates were closely related to human clinical isolates, demonstrating the overlap between wildlife and human pathogens. Fecal Salmonella shedding among hospitalized wildlife appears to be uncommon, and the risk of either nosocomial or zoonotic Salmonella transmission is presumably low. Nevertheless, the occurrence of Salmonella in wildlife, particularly among common species found in a wide array of habitats, poses a potential threat to public health and may result in transmission to more-vulnerable wildlife populations.
ObjectivesNon-human primates (NHP) are model organisms for understanding the pathophysiology and ... more ObjectivesNon-human primates (NHP) are model organisms for understanding the pathophysiology and treatment epilepsy therapy in humans, while data from human patients informs the diagnosis and treatment of NHP with seizures and epilepsy. We reviewed the literature and surveyed veterinarians at zoos and NHP research centers to 1) better define the range of seizures and epilepsy in NHP, 2) understand how NHPs can inform our knowledge of human epilepsy pathophysiology and treatment, and 3) identify gaps of knowledge and develop more effective guidelines to treat seizures and epilepsy in NHP.MethodsWe searched PrimateLit, Pubmed, and Google Scholar for studies on experimental models of epilepsy in NHP and on naturally-occurring seizures and epilepsy in NHP in captivity. We also created a survey to assess methods to diagnose and treat epilepsy in NHP. This survey was sent to 41 veterinarians at major international zoos and research facilities with NHP populations to study seizure phenomenology, diagnostic criteria for seizures and epilepsy, etiology, and anti-seizure therapies in NHP.ResultsWe summarize the data from experimental and natural models of epilepsy in NHP and case reports of epilepsy of unknown origin in captive primates. We also present survey data collected from veterinarians at 8 zoos and 1 research facility. Experimental data from NHP epilepsy models is abundant, while data from primates who develop epilepsy in the wild or in zoos is very limited, constraining our ability to advance evidence-based medicine.SignificanceCharacterization of seizure or epilepsy models in NHP will provide insights into mechanisms and new therapies which cannot be addressed by other animal models. NHP research will better inform species-specific diagnoses, and outcomes
Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are infrequently performed on Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), and fe... more Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are infrequently performed on Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), and few studies have been reported in the literature. The aim of this study was to determine reference ranges of ECG parameters in Asian elephants and to ascertain if age, body weight, and position of the elephant significantly affected the ECG. Electrocardiograms were obtained from 27 captive, nonsedated apparently healthy Asian elephants while they were standing (ST), in right lateral recumbency (RL), and/or in left lateral recumbency (LL). Six-lead ECGs were obtained using novel clamps and long ECG cables (71 cm). From lead I, standard waveforms and intervals were analyzed, including PR interval, QT interval, ST segment, P, QRS, T, and U waves if they were present. One animal was determined to have a previously undiagnosed conduction abnormality and was not included in the study. Most elephants had a sinus arrhythmia in at least one position. With increasing age, there was a trend toward a slower heart rate and significantly longer P waves. Increasing body weight was significantly correlated with longer QT intervals and T waves with lower amplitude. Compared with measurements in ST, LL resulted in P waves and QRS complexes with shorter amplitude, U waves with greater amplitude, PR intervals with shorter duration, and an increased heart rate. Compared with measurements in LL, RL resulted in larger QRS complexes. U waves were most commonly detected in RL and LL. Mean electrical axis calculated in the frontal plane were as follows: standing range -125 to +141 degrees, mean -5 degrees; left lateral range -15 to +104 degrees, mean 27 degrees; right lateral range -16 to +78 degrees, mean 9 degrees. Position-specific reference ranges should be used when interpreting ECGs, and clinicians must be aware of how age and body weight may affect the ECG.
Computed tomography (CT) was used to diagnose the cause of lameness in a radiated tortoise (Geoch... more Computed tomography (CT) was used to diagnose the cause of lameness in a radiated tortoise (Geochelone radiata) and to determine the extent of shell and skeletal trauma in two snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina). The radiated tortoise&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s lameness was ultimately attributed to luxation of the right-shoulder joint that was not detected during plain film radiography. Axial and appendicular fractures were identified in one of the snapping turtles that were not detected during plain film radiography. In each patient, the information obtained during CT provided important diagnostic, therapeutic, or prognostic information.
Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 2001
Providing a safe anesthetic environment is the key to successful avian anesthesia. Knowledge and ... more Providing a safe anesthetic environment is the key to successful avian anesthesia. Knowledge and understanding the anatomic and physiologic differences between birds and mammals help to prevent most emergency situations and guide responses in critical situations. Thorough preanesthetic history and examination, correction of underlying conditions, and use of simple anesthetic protocols all optimize the outcome of the procedure. Finally, critical monitoring helps to anticipate most crises and reduces incidences of mortality and morbidity in avian anesthesia.
Two captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) at a New York zoological institution were diagn... more Two captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) at a New York zoological institution were diagnosed with Babesia odocoilei. Clinical signs consistent with acute babesiosis included fever, hemoglobinuria, and hemolytic anemia. Both episodes were precipitated by stressful events that may have compromised their immunocompetence. The diagnosis was confirmed by visualization of intraerythrocytic parasites on stained blood smears, polymerase chain reaction, and speciation of the Babesia by sequencing a hypervariable region of the 18S rRNA gene. One reindeer died with gross and histopathologic lesions, including pigmentary nephrosis with severe acute tubular degeneration and necrosis secondary to intravascular hemolysis. A second reindeer was successfully treated with supportive care and an antiprotozoal, imidocarb dipropionate (Imizol, 12%, Schering-Plough Animal Health, Union, New Jersey 07083, USA) at 3 mg/kg s.c. or i.m. s.i.d. on days 1, 2, 6, 9, and 21. Two other reindeer in the exhibit tested negative for Babesia by polymerase chain reaction but were treated with imidocarb dipropionate as prophylaxis while final testing results were pending. Additionally, B. odocoilei was identified in three novel asymptomatic host species within the collection: yak (Bos grunniens), muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), and markhor goat (Caprafalconeri). Due to the high morbidity and mortality associated with acute babesiosis, captive reindeer should receive tick prevention, be tested for subclinical infections in endemic areas, and receive aggressive treatment for acute infections when clinical babesiosis is suspected.
Three captive-born (5-day-old, 8-day-old, and 4-yr-old) Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and one... more Three captive-born (5-day-old, 8-day-old, and 4-yr-old) Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and one captive-born 22-yr-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana) from three private elephant facilities and one zoo in the United States presented with depression, anorexia, and tachycardia as well as gastrointestinal signs of disease including abdominal distention, decreased borborygmi, tenesmus, hematochezia, or diarrhea. All elephants showed some evidence of discomfort including agitation, vocalization, or postural changes. One animal had abnormal rectal findings. Nonmotile bowel loops were seen on transabdominal ultrasound in another case. Duration of signs ranged from 6 to 36 hr. All elephants received analgesics and were given oral or rectal fluids. Other treatments included warm-water enemas or walking. One elephant underwent exploratory celiotomy. Three animals died, and the elephant taken to surgery was euthanized prior to anesthetic recovery. At necropsy, all animals had severe, strangulating intestinal lesions.
Ever since hyperosmotic agents, and in particular mannitol, were first introduced for clinical us... more Ever since hyperosmotic agents, and in particular mannitol, were first introduced for clinical use, the mechanism by which they reduce intracranial pressure (ICP), increase cerebral perfusion pressure, and enhance cerebral blood flow (CBF) has remained controversial (Brown et al, 1979). Caution has recently been urged regarding the use of mannitol during states of raised ICP and impaired autoregulation such as occur following head injury. The reason for this concern is that in patients with normal ICP, acute increases in ICP have been noted during and after administration of hyperosmotic agents (Cottrell et al., 1977). Researchers have therefore suggested (but not demonstrated) that in patients with elevated ICP, mannitol, by increasing cerebral blood volume (CBV) early in the infusion, may in fact transiently aggravate intracranial hypertension. On the other hand, hyperventilation is well known to cause cerebral vasoconstriction via a decrease in PaCO2, thereby decreasing CBF and CBV, and hence ICP. The present study was therefore undertaken to compare the effects on ICP of a bolus infusion of mannitol at various levels of PaCO2 in two groups of dogs: those with induced intracranial hypertension and those without. The study was approved by the MNI Animal Care Committee.
Rapid administration of mannitol in individuals with normal intracranial pressure (ICP) causes an... more Rapid administration of mannitol in individuals with normal intracranial pressure (ICP) causes an initial increase in ICP (Cottrell et al. 1979). In contrast, it has recently been demonstrated that a mannitol bolus rapidly reduces ICP in animals with intracranial hypertension (Abou-Madi et al. 1987). In both situations, mannitol’s initial impact on ICP appeared to derive from its vascular rather than its osmotic effect. This study compares the relationship between ICP and hemodynamic changes following bolus administration of mannitol: 1 — In dogs with normal ICP. 2 — In dogs with experimentally induced intracranial hypertension.
... As an example, ferrets manually restrained showed sig-nificant increase in their plasma conce... more ... As an example, ferrets manually restrained showed sig-nificant increase in their plasma concentration of corti-sol and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and a decrease in α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH), whereas isoflurane anesthesia resulted in signifi-...
OBJECTIVE To describe and to establish normative data for the foveae of diurnal birds of prey usi... more OBJECTIVE To describe and to establish normative data for the foveae of diurnal birds of prey using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). METHODS All animals (9 red-tailed hawks, 3 Cooper's hawks, 3 American kestrels, 1 sharp-shinned hawk, and 1 broad-winged hawk) had an ophthalmic examination performed with slit lamp biomicroscopy and indirect ophthalmoscopy. Following ophthalmic examination, SD-OCT was performed in each eye that had a visible fundus and normal fovea on SD-OCT. Temporal foveae depth, central foveae depth, pecten-temporal foveae distance, and pecten-central foveae distance (PCFD) were measured using SD-OCT. Differences in measured outcomes between species were determined using generalized linear mixed effects models. RESULTS The central foveae (mean ± SD) displayed a small but significant depth variation between species (P = .002) and was deepest in red-tailed hawks (293 ± 16 µm), followed by American kestrels (260 ± 12 µm), broad-winged hawks (256 ± 16 µm), Cooper's hawks (250 ± 9 µm), and sharp-shinned hawks (239 ± 16 µm). The temporal foveae were shallower than the central foveae in all species tested, and there was a significant variation between species (P < .001). The temporal foveae (mean ± SD) were deepest in American kestrels (137 ± 8 µm), followed by red-tailed hawks (129 ± 3 µm), broad-winged hawks (59.5 ± 3.5 µm), Cooper's hawks (20.3 ± 6.4 µm), and sharp-shinned hawks (17.5 ± 0.7 µm). Pecten-temporal foveae distance was approximately 30% shorter than PCFD in all species. There were no differences in the parameters tested between the eyes within each species (P ≥ .47). CONCLUSION Normative foveae SD-OCT data were obtained in four species of diurnal birds of prey. Further studies are warranted to provide structural and functional information regarding normal and pathologic changes that can affect the foveae.
Abstract: The role of wildlife as a source of zoonotic Salmonella transmission is poorly understo... more Abstract: The role of wildlife as a source of zoonotic Salmonella transmission is poorly understood, as are the clinical implications of this pathogen among wildlife species. Wildlife hospitals represent an important location to conduct Salmonella surveillance, given the wide variety of species admitted for medical and surgical care. Our objectives were to estimate the prevalence of fecal Salmonella shedding among wildlife admitted to a veterinary medical teaching hospital, to identify risk factors for infection, and to fully characterize the isolates. Voided fecal samples (birds and mammals) and cloacal swab samples (reptiles and amphibians) were collected between May 2018 and March 2020. Standard bacteriologic culture methods were used to detect Salmonella, and isolates were characterized via serotyping, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and whole-genome sequencing. Samples were collected from 348 wildlife patients representing 74 wildlife species, and the apparent prevalence of fecal Salmonella shedding was 1.4% (5/348; 95% confidence interval, 0.5–3.3%). Four serotypes were identified, and isolates were phenotypically susceptible to all antimicrobial agents tested. Two isolates were closely related to human clinical isolates, demonstrating the overlap between wildlife and human pathogens. Fecal Salmonella shedding among hospitalized wildlife appears to be uncommon, and the risk of either nosocomial or zoonotic Salmonella transmission is presumably low. Nevertheless, the occurrence of Salmonella in wildlife, particularly among common species found in a wide array of habitats, poses a potential threat to public health and may result in transmission to more-vulnerable wildlife populations.
ObjectivesNon-human primates (NHP) are model organisms for understanding the pathophysiology and ... more ObjectivesNon-human primates (NHP) are model organisms for understanding the pathophysiology and treatment epilepsy therapy in humans, while data from human patients informs the diagnosis and treatment of NHP with seizures and epilepsy. We reviewed the literature and surveyed veterinarians at zoos and NHP research centers to 1) better define the range of seizures and epilepsy in NHP, 2) understand how NHPs can inform our knowledge of human epilepsy pathophysiology and treatment, and 3) identify gaps of knowledge and develop more effective guidelines to treat seizures and epilepsy in NHP.MethodsWe searched PrimateLit, Pubmed, and Google Scholar for studies on experimental models of epilepsy in NHP and on naturally-occurring seizures and epilepsy in NHP in captivity. We also created a survey to assess methods to diagnose and treat epilepsy in NHP. This survey was sent to 41 veterinarians at major international zoos and research facilities with NHP populations to study seizure phenomenology, diagnostic criteria for seizures and epilepsy, etiology, and anti-seizure therapies in NHP.ResultsWe summarize the data from experimental and natural models of epilepsy in NHP and case reports of epilepsy of unknown origin in captive primates. We also present survey data collected from veterinarians at 8 zoos and 1 research facility. Experimental data from NHP epilepsy models is abundant, while data from primates who develop epilepsy in the wild or in zoos is very limited, constraining our ability to advance evidence-based medicine.SignificanceCharacterization of seizure or epilepsy models in NHP will provide insights into mechanisms and new therapies which cannot be addressed by other animal models. NHP research will better inform species-specific diagnoses, and outcomes
Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are infrequently performed on Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), and fe... more Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are infrequently performed on Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), and few studies have been reported in the literature. The aim of this study was to determine reference ranges of ECG parameters in Asian elephants and to ascertain if age, body weight, and position of the elephant significantly affected the ECG. Electrocardiograms were obtained from 27 captive, nonsedated apparently healthy Asian elephants while they were standing (ST), in right lateral recumbency (RL), and/or in left lateral recumbency (LL). Six-lead ECGs were obtained using novel clamps and long ECG cables (71 cm). From lead I, standard waveforms and intervals were analyzed, including PR interval, QT interval, ST segment, P, QRS, T, and U waves if they were present. One animal was determined to have a previously undiagnosed conduction abnormality and was not included in the study. Most elephants had a sinus arrhythmia in at least one position. With increasing age, there was a trend toward a slower heart rate and significantly longer P waves. Increasing body weight was significantly correlated with longer QT intervals and T waves with lower amplitude. Compared with measurements in ST, LL resulted in P waves and QRS complexes with shorter amplitude, U waves with greater amplitude, PR intervals with shorter duration, and an increased heart rate. Compared with measurements in LL, RL resulted in larger QRS complexes. U waves were most commonly detected in RL and LL. Mean electrical axis calculated in the frontal plane were as follows: standing range -125 to +141 degrees, mean -5 degrees; left lateral range -15 to +104 degrees, mean 27 degrees; right lateral range -16 to +78 degrees, mean 9 degrees. Position-specific reference ranges should be used when interpreting ECGs, and clinicians must be aware of how age and body weight may affect the ECG.
Computed tomography (CT) was used to diagnose the cause of lameness in a radiated tortoise (Geoch... more Computed tomography (CT) was used to diagnose the cause of lameness in a radiated tortoise (Geochelone radiata) and to determine the extent of shell and skeletal trauma in two snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina). The radiated tortoise&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s lameness was ultimately attributed to luxation of the right-shoulder joint that was not detected during plain film radiography. Axial and appendicular fractures were identified in one of the snapping turtles that were not detected during plain film radiography. In each patient, the information obtained during CT provided important diagnostic, therapeutic, or prognostic information.
Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 2001
Providing a safe anesthetic environment is the key to successful avian anesthesia. Knowledge and ... more Providing a safe anesthetic environment is the key to successful avian anesthesia. Knowledge and understanding the anatomic and physiologic differences between birds and mammals help to prevent most emergency situations and guide responses in critical situations. Thorough preanesthetic history and examination, correction of underlying conditions, and use of simple anesthetic protocols all optimize the outcome of the procedure. Finally, critical monitoring helps to anticipate most crises and reduces incidences of mortality and morbidity in avian anesthesia.
Two captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) at a New York zoological institution were diagn... more Two captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) at a New York zoological institution were diagnosed with Babesia odocoilei. Clinical signs consistent with acute babesiosis included fever, hemoglobinuria, and hemolytic anemia. Both episodes were precipitated by stressful events that may have compromised their immunocompetence. The diagnosis was confirmed by visualization of intraerythrocytic parasites on stained blood smears, polymerase chain reaction, and speciation of the Babesia by sequencing a hypervariable region of the 18S rRNA gene. One reindeer died with gross and histopathologic lesions, including pigmentary nephrosis with severe acute tubular degeneration and necrosis secondary to intravascular hemolysis. A second reindeer was successfully treated with supportive care and an antiprotozoal, imidocarb dipropionate (Imizol, 12%, Schering-Plough Animal Health, Union, New Jersey 07083, USA) at 3 mg/kg s.c. or i.m. s.i.d. on days 1, 2, 6, 9, and 21. Two other reindeer in the exhibit tested negative for Babesia by polymerase chain reaction but were treated with imidocarb dipropionate as prophylaxis while final testing results were pending. Additionally, B. odocoilei was identified in three novel asymptomatic host species within the collection: yak (Bos grunniens), muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), and markhor goat (Caprafalconeri). Due to the high morbidity and mortality associated with acute babesiosis, captive reindeer should receive tick prevention, be tested for subclinical infections in endemic areas, and receive aggressive treatment for acute infections when clinical babesiosis is suspected.
Three captive-born (5-day-old, 8-day-old, and 4-yr-old) Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and one... more Three captive-born (5-day-old, 8-day-old, and 4-yr-old) Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and one captive-born 22-yr-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana) from three private elephant facilities and one zoo in the United States presented with depression, anorexia, and tachycardia as well as gastrointestinal signs of disease including abdominal distention, decreased borborygmi, tenesmus, hematochezia, or diarrhea. All elephants showed some evidence of discomfort including agitation, vocalization, or postural changes. One animal had abnormal rectal findings. Nonmotile bowel loops were seen on transabdominal ultrasound in another case. Duration of signs ranged from 6 to 36 hr. All elephants received analgesics and were given oral or rectal fluids. Other treatments included warm-water enemas or walking. One elephant underwent exploratory celiotomy. Three animals died, and the elephant taken to surgery was euthanized prior to anesthetic recovery. At necropsy, all animals had severe, strangulating intestinal lesions.
Uploads
Papers by Noha Abou-Madi