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How to design and implement information systems so that they are safe and secure is a complex topic. Both high-level design principles and implementation guidance for software safety and security are well established and broadly accepted. For example, ...

Much of the existing research about open source elects to study software repositories instead of ecosystems. An open source repository most often refers to the artifacts recorded in a version control system and occasionally includes interactions around ...

Backend subsetting is useful for reducing costs and may even be necessary for operating within the system limits. For more than a decade, Google used deterministic subsetting as its default backend subsetting algorithm, but although this algorithm ...

Low latency is an important feature for many Google applications such as Search, and latency-analysis tools play a critical role in sustaining low latency at scale. For complex distributed systems that include services that constantly evolve in ...

Centralized data collection can expose individuals to privacy risks and organizations to legal risks if data is not properly managed. Federated learning is a machine learning setting where multiple entities collaborate in solving a machine learning ...

Several interfaces exist for querying provenance. Many are not flexible in allowing users to select a database type of their choice. Some provide query functionality in a data model that is different from the graph-oriented one that is natural for ...

In this time of pandemic, the world has turned to Internet-based, RTC (realtime communication) as never before. The number of RTC products has, over the past decade, exploded in large part because of cheaper high-speed network access and more powerful ...

While frameworks can be a powerful tool, they have some disadvantages and may not make sense for all organizations. Framework maintainers need to provide standardization and well-defined behavior while not being overly prescriptive. When frameworks ...

First formalized in 2006, differential privacy is an approach based on a mathematically rigorous definition of privacy that allows formalization and proof of the guarantees against re-identification offered by a system. While differential privacy has ...

This article covers the outcomes of research performed in 2019 on how engineers at Google debug production issues, including the types of tools, high-level strategies, and low-level tasks that engineers use in varying combinations to debug effectively. ...

When work began at Mozilla on the record-and-replay debugging tool called rr, the goal was to produce a practical, cost-effective, resource-efficient means for capturing low-frequency nondeterministic test failures in the Firefox browser. Much of the ...

It is unreasonable to expect engineers working on product development or reliability to have statistical knowledge; removing this hurdle led to widespread CAS adoption. CAS has proven useful even for basic cases that don’t need configuration, and has ...

Most services offered by Google aim to offer 99.99 percent (sometimes referred to as the "four 9s") availability to users. Some services contractually commit to a lower figure externally but set a 99.99 percent target internally. This more stringent ...

Google’s Chrome web browser strives to deliver a smooth user experience. An animation will update the screen at 60 FPS (frames per second), giving Chrome around 16.6 milliseconds to perform the update. Within these 16.6 ms, all input events have to be ...

Though widespread interest in software containers is a relatively recent phenomenon, at Google we have been managing Linux containers at scale for more than ten years and built three different container-management systems in that time. Each system was ...