Abstract
The main objective of the Synthetic Teammate project is to develop language and task enabled synthetic agents capable of being integrated into team training simulations. To achieve this goal, the agents must be able to closely match human behavior. The initial application for the synthetic teammate research is creation of an agent able to perform the functions of a pilot for an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) simulation as part of a three-person team. The agent, or synthetic teammate, is being developed in the ACT-R cognitive architecture. The major components include: language comprehension and generation, dialog management, agent-environment interaction, and situation assessment. Initial empirical results suggest that the agent-environment interaction is a good approximation to human behavior in the UAV environment, and we are planning further empirical tests of the synthetic teammate operating with human teammates. This paper covers the project’s modeling approach, challenges faced, progress made toward an integrated synthetic teammate, and lessons learned during development.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.References
Altmann G, Steedman M (1988) Interaction with context during human sentence processing. Cognition 30:191–238
Anderson JR (2007) How can the human mind occur in the physical Universe? Oxford University Press, New York
Anderson JR, Fincham JM, Douglass S (1997) The role of examples and rules in the acquisition of a cognitive skill. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 23:932–945
Anderson JR, Bothell D, Byrne M, Douglass S, Lebiere C, Qin Y (2004) An integrated theory of the mind. Psychol Rev 111(4):1036–1060
Ball J (1991). PM, propositional model, a computational psycholinguistic model of language comprehension based on a relational analysis of written english. UMI Dissertation Information Service, Ann Arbor, MI
Ball J (2004a). A cognitively plausible model of language comprehension. In: Proceedings of the 13th conference on behavior representation in modeling and simulation, pp 305–316
Ball J (2004b) Software agents with natural language capabilities–where are we? In: Symposium conducted at the 13th conference on behavior representation in modeling and simulation, Arlington, VA
Ball J (2006) Can NLP systems be a cognitive black box? (Is cognitive science relevant to AI problems?) In: Paper presented at the AAAI spring symposium: between a rock and a hard place, cognitive science principles meet AI hard problems (Technical Report SS-06-02). AAAI Press, Menlo Park
Ball J (2007a) Construction-driven language processing. In: Vosniadou S, Kayser D, Protopapas A (eds) Proceedings of the 2nd european cognitive science conference. LEA, New York, pp 722–727
Ball J (2007b) A bi-polar theory of nominal and clause structure and function. Ann Rev Cogn Linguist 5(1):27–54
Ball J (2008) A naturalistic, functional approach to modeling language comprehension. In: Paper presented at the AAAI Fall Symposium, Naturally Inspired Artificial Intelligence (Technical Report FS-08-06). AAAI Press, Menlo Park
Ball J (2010) Simplifying the mapping from referring expression to referent in a conceptual semantics of reference. In: Proceedings of the 32nd annual meeting of the cognitive science society
Ball J, Heiberg A, Silber R (2007) Toward a large-scale model of language comprehension in ACT-R 6. In: Lewis R, Polk T, Laird J (eds) Proceedings of the 8th international conference on cognitive modeling. Psychology Press, New York, pp 173–179
Boersma P, Hayes B (2001) Empirical tests of the gradual learning algorithm. Linguist Inq 32:45–86
Byrne MD (2001) ACT-R/PM and menu selection: applying a cognitive architecture to HCI. Int J Human-Comput Stud 55(1):41–84
Byrne MD, Kirlik A (2005) Using computational cognitive modeling to diagnose possible sources of aviation error. Int J Aviat Psychol 15(2):135–155
Byrne MD, Wood SD, Sukaviriya P, Foley JD, Kieras DE (1994) Automating interface evaluation. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems: celebrating interdependence. ACM, New York, pp 232–237
Cassimatis N, Bello P, Langley P (2008) Ability, breadth, and parsimony in computational models of higher-order cognition. Cogn Sci 32:1304–1322
Christianson K, Hollingsworth A, Halliwell J, Ferreira F (2001) Thematic roles assigned along the garden path linger. Cogn Psychol 42:368–407
Colmerauer A, Roussel P (1996) The birth of Prolog. In: Bergin T, Gibson R (eds) History of programming languages II. ACM Press/Addison-Wesley, New York, pp 331–367
Cooke N, Shope S (2005) Synthetic task environments for teams: CERTT’s UAV-STE. Handbook on human factors and ergonomics methods, vol 46. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Cooke NJ, Kiekel PA, Helm EE (2001) Measuring team knowledge during skill acquisition of a complex task. Int J Cogn Ergon 5(3):297–315. Special section on knowledge acquisition
Cooke NJ, Gorman JC, Duran JL, Taylor AR (2007) Team cognition in experienced command-and-control teams. J Exp Psychol Appl 13(3):146–157. Special issue on capturing expertise across domains
Cooke NJ, Gorman JC, Kiekel PA (2008) Communication as team-level cognitive processing. In: Letsky M, Warner N, Fiore S, Smith CAP (eds) Macrocognition in teams: theories and methodologies. Ashgate, Hants, pp 51–64
Core MG, Allen JF (1997) Coding dialogs with the DAMSL annotation scheme. Paper presented at the AAAI fall symposium on communicative action in humans and machines, November 8–10, 1997, Cambridge, MA
Douglass SA (2007) A computational model of situated action. Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh (Doctoral dissertation)
Douglass SA (2010) Rule & Automata Modeling Language (RaAML) (in preparation)
Douglass S, Ball J, Rodgers S (2009) Large declarative memories in ACT-R. In: Proceedings of the 9th international conference on cognitive modeling 2009, Manchester, UK
Endsley MR (1995) Toward a theory of situation awareness in dynamic systems. Hum Factors 37(1):32–64
Ericsson S (2004) Dynamic optimisation of information enrichment in dialogue. In: Proceedings of the 8th international workshop on formal semantics and pragmatics of dialogue. Catalog, Barcelona
Freiman M, Ball J (2008) Computational cognitive modeling of reading comprehension at the word level. In: Proceedings of the 38th western conference on linguistics. University of California, Davis, Davis, pp 34–45
Freiman M, Ball J (2010) Improving the reading rate of Double-RLanguage. In: Proceedings of the 10th international conference on cognitive modeling (to appear)
Gallagher HL, Frith CD (2003) Functional imaging of ‘theory of mind’. Trends Cogn Sci 7(2):77–83
Gibson E, Pearlmutter NJ (1998) Constraints on sentence comprehension. Trends Cogn Sci 2(7):262–268
Gorman JC, Cooke NJ, Winner JL (2006) Measuring team situation awareness in decentralized command and control systems. Ergonomics 49:1312–1325
Grodner D, Gibson E, Argaman V, Babyonyshev M (2003) Against repair-based reanalysis in sentence comprehension. J Psycholinguist Res 32(2):141–166
Hobbs JR (1985) Ontological promiscuity. In: Proceedings of the 23rd annual meeting of the association for computational linguistics. Chicago, IL, pp 61–69
Hobbs JR (2003) Discourse and inference. Retrieved from http://www.isi.edu/~hobbs/disinf-tc.html
Jones RM, Laird JE, Nielsen PE, Coulter KJ, Kenny P, Koss FV (1999) Automated intelligent pilots for combat flight simulation. AI Mag 20(1):27–41
Kamp H, Ryle U (1993) From discourse to logic: introduction to model-theoretic semantics of natural language, formal logic and discourse representation theory. Studies in linguistics and philosophy. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht
Kieras DE (1988) Towards a practical GOMS model methodology for user interface design. In: Helander M (ed) The handbook of human-computer interaction. North-Holland, Amsterdam, pp 135–158
Kieras D, Meyer DE (1997) An overview of the EPIC architecture for cognition and performance with application to human-computer interaction. Hum-Comput Interact 12(4):391–438
Kintsch W (1998) Comprehension, a paradigm for cognition. Cambridge University Press, New York
Klahr D, Chase WG, Lovelace EA (1983) Structure and process in alphabetic retrieval. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 9(3):462–477
Kosslyn S (2006) The case for mental imagery. Oxford University Press, New York
Laird JE, Jones RM (1998) Building advanced autonomous AI systems for large scale real time simulations. In: Proceedings of the 1998 computer game developers’ conference. Freeman, Long Beach, pp 365–378
Landauer T, Dumais S (1997) A solution to Plato’s problem: the latent semantic analysis theory of the acquisition, induction, and representation of knowledge. Psychol Rev 104(2):211–240
Langacker RW (1987) Foundations of cognitive grammar, vol I: theoretical prerequisites. Stanford University Press, Stanford
Langacker RW (1991) Foundations of cognitive grammar, vol II: descriptive application. Stanford University Press, Stanford
Lebiere C, Wray R (eds) (2006) Between a rock and a hard place: cognitive science principles meet AI-hard problems. AAAI Press, Menlo Park. Papers from the AAAI spring symposium
Lovett MC (1998) Choice. In: Anderson JR, Lebiere C (eds) The atomic components of thought. Erlbaum, Mahwah, pp 255–296
Marcus M, Badler N, Joshi A, Pappas G, Pereira F, Romero M, McCallum A, Potts C, Yanco H (2008) SUBTLE (Situation Understanding Bot Through Language and Environment) project program review. University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Matessa M (2000) Simulating adaptive communication. Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh (Doctoral dissertation)
McClelland JL, Rumelhart DE (1981) An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception. Part I. An account of basic findings. Psychol Rev 88(5):375–407
McDonald D (1999) A rational reconstruction of Genaro. In: Proceedings of the RAGS Workshop, Edinburgh
Miller G (1995) WordNet: a lexical database for English. Commun ACM 38(11):39–41
Myers CW (2009) An account of model inspiration, integration, & sub-task validation. In: Proceedings of the 9th international conference on cognitive modeling, Manchester, UK
Prince A, Smolensky P (1993/2004) Optimality theory: constraint interaction in generative grammar. Wiley-Blackwell, New York
Ritter FE, Van Rooy D, St Amant R (2002) A user modelling design tool based on a cognitive architecture for comparing interfaces. In: Computer-aided design of user interfaces III. Proceedings of the 4th international conference on computer-aided design of user interfaces CADUI’2002, Valenciennes, France, 15–17 May 2002. Kluwer Academics, Dordrecht, pp 111–118
Scolaro J, Santarelli T (2002) Cognitive modeling teamwork, taskwork, and instructional behavior in synthetic teammates. In: Proceedings of the 11th conference on computer generated forces and behavioral representation. Institute for Simulation and Training, Orlando
Seidenberg MS, McClelland JL (1989) A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychol Rev 96(4):523–568
Stokes J (2001) Speech interaction and human behavior representations (HBRs). In: Proceedings of 10th conference on computer generated forces and behavioral representation. SISO, Inc, Norfolk, pp 467–476
Tambe M, Johnson WL, Jones RM, Koss F, Laird JE, Rosenbloom PS, Schwamb K (1995) Intelligent agents for interactive simulation environments. AI Mag 16(1):15–40
Tanenhaus MK, Spivey-Knowlton MJ, Eberhard KM, Sedivy JC (1995) Integration of visual and linguistic information in spoken language comprehension. Science 268(5217):1632–1634
Traum DR, Allen JF (1994) Discourse obligations in dialogue processing. In: Proceedings of the 32nd annual meeting of the association for computational linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics, Las Cruces, Morristown
Traum DR, Rickel J, Gratch J, Marsella S (2003) Negotiation over tasks in hybrid human-agent teams for simulation-based training. In: Proceedings of the second international joint conference on Autonomous agents and multiagent systems. ACM, Melbourn, Australia, New York, pp 441–448.
van Dijk T, Kintsch W (1983) Strategies of discourse comprehension. Academic Press, New York
Varges S (2006) Overgeneration and ranking for spoken dialogue systems. In: Proceedings of the 4th international natural language generation conference, Sydney, Australia, July 2006. Association for Computational Linguistics, pp 20–22
Vosse T, Kempen G (2000) Syntactic structure assembly in human parsing: a computational model based on competitive inhibition and a lexicalist grammar. Cognition 75:105–143
Walker MA, Whittaker SJ, Stent A, Maloor P, Moore J, Johnston M, Vasireddy G (2004) Generation and evaluation of user tailored responses in multimodal dialogue. Cogn Sci 28(5):811–840
Yang Y, Bello P (2005) Some empirical results concerning deontic reasoning: models, schema, or both? In: Proceedings of the 27th annual meeting of the cognitive science society. Erlbaum, Mahway, pp 2393–2398
Zachary W, Santarelli T, Lyons D, Bergondy M, Johnston J (2001) Using a community of intelligent synthetic entities to support operational team training. In: Proceedings of the tenth conference on computer generated forces and behavioral representation. Orlando, FL: Institute for Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida, pp 215–224
Zwann R, Radvansky G (1998) Situation models in language comprehension and memory. Psychol Bull 123(2):162–185
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ball, J., Myers, C., Heiberg, A. et al. The synthetic teammate project. Comput Math Organ Theory 16, 271–299 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10588-010-9065-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10588-010-9065-3