1 Introduction

Due to the ongoing impact of COVID-19, small private online courses (SPOCs) have become an increasing popular teaching method for higher institutions globally. The SPOC teaching model integrates the respective advantages of online learning and offline teaching, which can effectively improve students’ learning effectiveness (Fox, 2013). SPOCs allow the integration of massive open online courses (MOOCs) with traditional classrooms to achieve optimal learning effects as a development goal (Jiang & Al-Shaibani, 2022; Li & Li, 2015). An individual’s continuance learning intention is the direct factor affecting learning behavior (Kuang et al., 2019) and it is essential for students’ willingness to overcome uncertainties during the learning process, complete the course, and continue taking up other courses (Joo et al., 2018). Learners will have meaningful deep learning, will continuously acquire knowledge, and improve learning efficiency by maintaining their continuance learning intention and learning habits (Lan et al., 2019). However, due to the separation of time and space between teaching and learning in the blended learning setting, some students were hesitant to participate in SPOC-based blended learning, leading to an issue of high dropout rate (Dai et al., 2020). Additionally, some students might lack the intention to continue their online learning, which can negatively affect the desired outcomes of online learning (Le & Fan, 2019; Wan et al., 2020). Students’ continuance intention to learn online is one of the key factors for the successful implementation of the SPOC-based blended learning model (Kuang et al., 2019; Jing et al., 2021). However, the research on the continuous learning intention have mainly focused on the continuous use of MOOC learning, online learning platform and autonomous learning platform by learners (Tan & Fu, 2020; Zhang et al., 2016; Zhang, 2019). Therefore, whether students can accept and adapt to the SPOC-based blended learning setting, it is worthwhile to deeply analyze and consider the influencing factors of the continuous learning intention.

Although there is massive literature on blended learning in an English as a Foreign Language (hereinafter EFL) context, SPOC-based blended design in higher vocational colleges is still developing (Wang et al., 2021). The volume of research targeting influencing factors of EFL students’ continuance learning intentions in SPOC-based blended learning setting in higher vocational colleges is limited. Additionally, in the process of implementing SPOC-based blended English teaching for EFL students in a higher vocational college, the researcher has found that some students do have the issue of low persistence in learning. Thus, this study aims to explore the influencing factors of EFL students’ continuance intention to learn under SPOC blended learning setting by using grounded theory. Theoretically, this study can provide a new perspective on the influencing factors of EFL students’ learning intention in higher vocational colleges as well as enrich and develop the qualitative research scope of blended teaching. In practice, stakeholders’ specific needs will be identified for implementation reference of SPOC-based blended learning and policy support. This will help provide suggestions to providers of blended teaching courses and designers of learning platforms.

2 Literature review

2.1 Theoretical models on continuance learning intention

Previous studies suggest a wide range of theoretical models which have been applied to research on the continuance learning intention under online learning setting and blended learning setting. Some researchers have constructed a model of influencing factors of online learning continuance intention and used structural equation model to verify the explanatory power of the hypothetical model. Among them, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Expectation Confirmation Model (ECM) are the basic models commonly used in research today. Artina (2010) studied the impact of MOOCs’ openness and reputation on its continued use based on an extended ECM model. Zhang et al. (2016) used the improved ECM model to conduct an empirical study on the influencing factors of MOOC continuance learning intention. Additionally, a Chinese scholar refers to other basic theories and models from Task-Technology Fit (TTF) theory’ perspective, which discusses the continuous use and performance of online teaching platforms under the blended learning model (Yang, 2015). Both Abbas (2016) and Li et al. (2021) used structural equation modelling to propose a conceptual model investigating the impacts of factors on students’ intention to use e-learning through the mediating variables of perceived ease of use and usefulness. Bao (2017) studied the influencing factors of students’ willingness to use mobile learning under open education based on the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT). Wu and Chen (2017) proposed a unified model integrating TAM model, TTF model, MOOCs features, and social motivation to investigate continuance intention to use MOOCs.

2.2 Influencing factors on continuance learning intention

Satisfaction is a very important influencing factor on the continuance learning intention in the online setting and blended learning setting. Some researchers’ empirical study showed that learners’ satisfaction had positive impact on the continued use of e-learning users (Bashir, 2019; Chiu et al., 2005; Joo et al., 2018; Lee, 2010; Taghizadeh et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2022). Besides satisfaction, Ren (2021) explored the effects of expectation confirmation, perceived usefulness, curiosity, and attitude on online students’ intention to continue learning. Li and Han (2021) used structural equations to test the model’s continuous intention to learn online. Their results showed that not only satisfaction and learning self-efficacy significantly affected continuous learning willingness, but perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness also had a significant impact on continuous learning. In addition to satisfaction, factors derived from basic theoretical models, such as user acceptance and technology adoption, are hotspots worldwide. By modifying and extending the ECM, Dai et al. (2020) proposed a research model that includes cognitive and affective variables, and they considered both intrinsic and extrinsic motives in the model construction to explain learners’ intention to continue learning MOOC. They found that attitude played a crucial role alongside personal trait and curiosity. Zhou (2017) expanded ECM by adding the variable ‘social influence’ and used learning outcomes to replace perceived usefulness in the MOOC learning setting. Bao (2017) also found that social factor has a positive impact on open education learners’ learning intention in mobile learning. Abdullah and Ward (2016), Alraimi et al. (2015), Chang et al. (2020), and Liu and Pu (2020) conducted research on undergraduate students’ online learning intentions based on various technology acceptance models. Their results showed that the influencing factors mainly include self-efficacy, social influence, computer entertainment, computer anxiety, and experience. However, the research results from Haris et al. (2022) showed positive impact of learner-content, learner-instructor interaction, academic performance, and course design quality on continuance intention of e-learning except for self-efficacy when they used a questionnaire to determine the influence of the factors on continuance intention of e-learning in the higher education sector in Pakistan. Additionally, Doleck et al. (2018) found that several factors, such as computer anxiety and perceived ease of use, had no significant effect on online learning willingness when they tested the e-Learning-oriented Generic Extended Technology Acceptance Model (GETAMEL).

It is noteworthy that the previous studies on the influencing factors of online learning intention focused on quantitative methods mainly based on theoretical models. The theoretical models used by previous researchers are mainly optimized by increasing or decreasing variables. However, too few variables may miss the influencing factors of online learning intention, while too many variables or complicated variables may affect the model’s use value and practical significance. Quantitative studies predominate in the study of continuance intention (Yan et al., 2021). Second, in terms of research subjects and learning environment, the main research subjects of previous studies were undergraduates, and the research environment was mainly MOOC or the single online learning environment. Few researchers have have studied EFL students from higher vocational colleges in SPOC-based blended teaching environments. To fill this gap in the literature, this study uses grounded theory to explore the influencing factors of EFL students’ learning continuance intention under the SPOC setting. Grounded theory is a method of qualitative research usually used by researchers to build theories, and researchers usually have no theoretical assumptions before the research begins, so the findings are often innovative (Strauss, 1987). By using triple coding method of open, axis, and selective coding of grounded theory, this study analyzes the text data obtained from the in-depth interviews and focus group interviews and build a theoretical model of influencing factors of EFL students’ continuance learning intention in the SPOC-based blended learning environment. Furthermore, it proposes a systematic framework for promoting continuance learning intention in SPOC-based blended learning setting based on stakeholders to provide basic theory and variable selection for the subsequent modeling research on blended learning continuance intention’s influencing factors.

3 Study design

3.1 Research methods

This study adopted the data coding method of grounded theory because the inductive research process of programmed grounded theory is widely used and easy to operate (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Grounded theory, as a method of qualitative research, has obvious advantages in building new theories (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Coding, as the core of grounded theory, refers to the continuous and repeated comparisons between events and concepts to enable classification, feature formation, and conceptualization of data (Mediani, 2017). The coding process of grounded theory formally can be divided into three interlocking coding processes: open coding, spindle coding,and selective coding. The research method framework of grounded theory is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
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The research method flow of grounded theory (Tian, 2012)

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3.2 Research participants

The respondents comprised 48 first-year EFL students from three higher vocational colleges in Guangdong Province, China. These students were studying a compulsory course entitled Higher Vocational College English under SPOC-based blended learning setting. The college’s offline teachers offer their services to the face-to-face offline course teaching in addition to the main lecturer who provides videos related to the course on the teaching platform.There are four one-hour classes per week (four hours per week) regarding the Higher Vocational College English course, within a semester comprising 16 weeks. The physical offline teaching activities consist mainly exercises done by students before and after class that are supervised by teachers. Among these participants, 20 were boys, accounting for 41.7%, and 28 were girls, accounting for 58.3%. The respondents were between 17 years old and 22 years old, which included all age groups of EFL learners in higher vocational colleges and was consistent with the current age distribution of students in higher vocational colleges. The average age was 18.5 years.

3.3 Data sources and collection

This study adopted the purposive sampling, utilizing both one-to-one in-depth interviews (n = 6) and focus group interview (n = 42). The focus group interviews enabled researchers to obtain unexpected findings through free group discussions (MacDougall & Fudge, 2001), while the one-on-one in-depth interviews allowed for more in-depth and open exchange of information (Adams & Cox, 2008). Prior to the interview, participants were provided an informed consent form that outlined the purpose of the research. In the initial stage of constructing the theoretical model, 48 participants were interviewed, including 7 focus group interviews lasting an average of 70 min and 6 one-to-one in-depth interviews lasting an average of 15 min. .

The study’s semi-structured interview outline was centered on the theme of “Influencing factors of EFL students’ learning continuance intention in SPOC-based blended learning environment.“ Part 1 of the outline gathered personal information regarding professional background, personal interest characteristics, and study habits, while Part 2 focused on subjective questions and answers. Part 2 included two aspects: the first aspect sought to understand students’ motivation to participate in SPOC, factors influencing their continuance to learn under SPOC-based blended learning, and their perceptions of SPOC-based blended learning. The second consisted of optional interview questions aimed at exploring new in-depth ideas that may emerge during the interview, along with alternative questions for follow-up to obtain substantive answers.

Interviews were recorded with participants’ consent, transcribed using a voice recorder, and analyzed using Nvivo 10 (Chinese version), a qualitative research data analysis software. To ensure data integrity and reliability, two drafts of each interview transcript were prepared. The first was the original interview record, while the second incorporated the researcher’s overall judgment and evaluation of the respondents’ authenticity. After eliminating invalid content, the final transcript contained 32,000 words and 1,450 sentences. Three-fourths of the interview transcripts were randomly selected for coding analysis, while the remaining one-fourth were used to test theoretical saturation in the later stages of the study.

3.4 Analysis of coding process

This study strictly follows the research method of grounded theory. The specific process of three-level coding based on Nvivo 10 is shown in Table 1.

Table 1 The coding process of grounded theory based on Nvivo10 software
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3.4.1 Open coding phase

During the open coding phase, the researcher conducted a line-by-line study of the recorded texts of 40 respondents without any personal presuppositions and biases, focusing on the core research question of “influencing Factors of EFL students’ continuance to learn in SPOC-based blended learning environment” code and label. The researcher then named the phenomena that appeared in the data to form a code. Next, the researcher generated the most important or most frequent codes from the original recorded text, and conceptualized and formed the preliminary concept. This study extracted 60 preliminary concepts during the conceptualization phase.

Because the number of preliminary concepts was large and there was an overlap, it became necessary to further classify the concepts related to the same phenomenon according to the causal relationship, similarity, and type relationship between the preliminary concepts. Considering the large sample size of this study, preliminary concepts with very low repetition frequency ( ≦ 3 times) were excluded from the classification process. After classification, 10 preliminary categories were extracted from 60 preliminary concepts: interests in learning English, career development drive, perception of English value, perception of learning efforts, English teachers’ supervision, English teachers’ guidance, English curriculum design, English teaching quality, learning platform function, and learning platform service (Table 2).

Table 2 The analysis of conceptualization and categorization (Only four examples of categories due to space)
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3.4.2 Axis coding phase

At the main axis coding stage, it is imperative to analyze the attributes of categories as well as the relationship between the categories and between the categories and concepts and to improve the generic relationship through continuance comparison. After conducting an inductive analysis of the 10 preliminary categories, the researcher finally conceptualized and grouped them into 5 main categories: English learning motivation, self-efficacy in English learning, English teachers’ teaching, English curriculum satisfaction, and SPOC learning platform assurance. The 5 main categories include 10 preliminary categories. (see Table 3). For example, one of the main categories of English learning motivation includes two preliminary categories: interest in learning English and career development drive. These two factors, as intrinsic psychological factors, directly affect EFL students’ continuance intention to learn under SPOC-based blended learning.

Table 3 Main categories formed by axis coding
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3.4.3 Selective coding phase

The main category covers all the necessary elements of “influencing Factors of EFL leaners’ continuance intention to learn under SPOC-based blended learning Environment”. The author finally extracted 5 main categories and 10 preliminary categories, and the relationship between the preliminary categories and the main categories formed a relatively clear frame structure, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Typical relational structure of main category
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3.4.4 Theoretical saturation test

The theoretical saturation test, signaling when to stop collecting data, refers to a data-testing method that produces neither new theoretical ideas nor new core categories from subsequently collected data. This study used the remaining one-fourth interview transcripts to test theoretical saturation. These interview data were coded according to the data coding method of the grounded theory. The results were in line with the structural relationship proposed in the original theory, and no new theoretical viewpoints and new main categories were found. Therefore, the theoretical model established in this study is saturated.

3.5 Validity and reliability

This study was primarily coded by the researcher himself, and the results were reviewed by two professors in the education field to ensure the validity of the study. This study obtained data authenticity, correctness, and reliability through mutual corroboration and cross-comparison between different interviewees and different focus groups to ensure the validity of the research.

Through a record of constant reflection (the memo), the researchers remind themselves to be sensitive to existing theories and those presented in the original material and to value capturing new information in order to build theories. Simultaneously, the researcher shares the process and preliminary conclusions with two colleagues, listens to their opinions, and uses the “coding consistency percentage” to measure the consistency of text encoding. The “coding comparison” function in the “query” column of the data analysis software Nvivo 10 was used to compare the five main categories of factors affecting the continuation of online learning of the 40 respondents. Coding consistency coefficients ranged from 0.905 to 0.746, showing high reliability.

4 Theoretical model construction

Based on the analysis and coding of the interview data, this paper constructs a theoretical model of the influencing factors of EFL students’ continuance learning intention (pre-influencing factors, external situational factors, continuance intention), as shown in Fig. 2. The theoretical model stems from a continuous data comparison process that breaks down data into codes, concepts, and categories until theory is saturated. The connotation of the theoretical model of this research mainly includes the following aspects:

  1. 1)

    The EFL students’ continuance learning intention works as the core category, and other categories influence it;

  2. 2)

    English learning motivation and self-efficacy in English learning, as pre-influencing factors, constitute the students’ internal psychological awareness, which directly impact students’ continuance intention to learn;

  3. 3)

    English teachers’ teaching, English curriculum satisfaction, and SPOC learning platform assurance are external situational influencing factors to adjust the influence of English learning motivation and self-efficacy in English learning on SPOC-based continuance learning intention;

  4. 4)

    The EFL students’ continuance learning intention directly influence continuance learning behavior under SPOC-based blended learning environment.

Fig. 2
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Model of influencing factors of EFL students’ continuance learning intention in SPOC-based blended learning environment

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5 Discussion

Based on the above analysis, the researcher constructed a theoretical model of factors influencing the continuance intention of online learning in the SPOC environment (pre-influencing factors, external situational factors, continuance intention). which further proved Bandura (1977a)’s social learning theory. Based on social learning theory, in the specific learning process, students’ learning intentions are not only affected by internal factors, but also influenced by external environmental factors (Bandura, 1977a; Ormrod, 2015). Therefore, students’ continuous learning intention under the SPOC environment needs to fully consider the influence and role of individual internal factors and external influencing factors. In comparison with previous studies (Artina, 2010; Bao, 2017; Yang, 2015; Zhang et al., 2016) that used a quantitative approach based on theoretical models, this study has expanded the theoretical model in the following. The influencing factors of continuance intention to learn under SPOC-based blended learning environment is categorized into 5 main categories and 10 factors specifically. The 5 main categories include: English learning motivation, self-efficacy in English learning, English teachers’ teaching, English curriculum satisfaction, and SPOC learning platform assurance. Among them, English learning motivation and self-efficacy in English learning as pre-influencing factors can directly affect EFL students’ continuance learning intention of online learning, while the other three main categories are used as situational factors to adjust the relationship between English learning motivation and self-efficacy in English learning and continuance learning intention.

.

5.1 Analysis of pre-influencing factors

English learning motivation and self-efficacy in English learning constitute students’ internal psychological factors, which mainly use students’ internal psychological preference to promote the generation of continuance learning intention in SPOC-based blended learning. This finding seems to be in line with the results of previous studies conducted by Abbas (2016) and Dai et al. (2020). They found that learners’ continuance intention greatly influenced not only by intrinsic factors, but by extrinsic factors.

English learning motivation refers to the internal psychological process or internal motivation that is guided, stimulated and maintained by a goal and object (Wang & Liu, 2022). Learners’ motivations are theorized to influence planning, monitoring learning, and self-evaluation processes, which in turn influence learning outcomes (Hong et al., 2020). Based on this study, the strength of English learning motivation affects continuance intention generation in students. When students’ English learning motivations are weak, their continued willingness to conduct online learning is low. This study classified the English learning motivation into interests in learning English and career development drive specifically. Interest in learning English directly affects students’ continued willingness to study English in SPOC-based blended learning environments through their attitudes toward learning English under SPOC environment and enthusiastic in learning English. Students’ good attitudes toward the SPOC-based learning mode can increase their pleasant emotions in SPOC learning, generate learning willingness, thereby promoting continuous learning intention generation. For example: “I am very interested in learning English in the way of SPOC. The course is relatively easy to learn, and the knowledge points in the class can be learned and strengthened persistently outside the class. I hope that the next semester will still be like this”. Career development drive refers to the students’ desire to meet their future career development through SPOC-based blended learning. Career development drive can promote students’ English learning enthusiasm and initiative and produce continuous learning inputs more often. For example: “I plan to work in a foreign trading company., and this SPOC-based blended learning method is very practical for me to improve language skills which lays foundation for my career work. I prefer it.“

Self-efficacy in English learning refers to the self-perception of learning efforts and concentration in the SPOC-based blended learning environment. Self-efficacy is the intrinsic driving force of human activity (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1977). Self-efficacy has a predictive effect on learning adaptability (Chemers et al., 2001; Guo et al., 2021). This study found that students’ perceived strength of SPOC-based blended learning value affects continual learning intention generation in students, which is in accord with the results of study conducted by Abdullah and Ward (2016), Alraimi et al. (2015), Chang et al. (2020), and Liu and Pu (2020). According to the interview data, most students’ English self-perception mainly manifested in English knowledge value and learning efforts. For example: “I think the the learning materials on the learning platform benefit me a lot, and there are plenty of CET-4 learning materials which are very valuable.“ The SPOC-based blended learning mode was helpful, which produced in them a positive and strong intention to learn. When students do not feel that SPOC-based blended learning is valuable, the continuance intention to learn under SPOC-based blended learning will decrease. Several interviewees repeatedly emphasized this point in the in-depth interviews. Also, self-efficacy of learning efforts influence learning intention in SPOC-based learning environment. For example, “SPOC learning mode demands us to learn both in-class and out-class, which implies we need to pay more efforts to learn English course”. This finding further approved Bandura’ theory that students’ learning behavior will be affected by their sense of self-efficacy, and learning behavior will further affect their learning ability, so their learning achievements and learning opportunities will be affected by their sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997b). However, this finding differs from the results of study conducted by Doleck et al. (2018) and Haris et al. (2022) who found that the self-efficacy was not an influencing factor on continuance intention.

5.2 Analysis of external situational factors

English teachers’ teaching, English curriculum satisfaction, and SPOC learning platform assurance were used as moderator variables (Csikszentmihayi, 1975) to regulate the strength and direction of the relationship between EFL students’ English learning motivation, self-efficacy in English learning, and SPOC learning continuance intention. This finding agrees with the results from Abbas (2016) and Dai et al. (2020) who found that external factors influence continuance intention.

5.2.1 English teachers’ teaching

The study found that English teachers are an important factor affecting students’ continuance intention to learn in SPOC-based blended learning setting, which is consistent with the research results of Abbas (2016), Haris et al. (2022), Liang (2015), and Xu (2016). English teachers’ teaching affects the relationship between the pre-influencing factors of students and the continuance learning intention of SPOC-based blended learning from two aspects: English teacher supervision and English teaching guidance. English teachers’ supervision and guidance are crucial to students’ continuous learning behavior (Jiang, 2022; Qin, 2019; Zhang et al., 2017). Generally, students in higher vocational colleges have weak subjective initiative in learning (Dai, 2014; Liu, 2010). Without the guidance and supervision of teachers, the frequency and efficiency of students’ SPOC learning will be negatively affected. According to the interview data, some EFL students mentioned: I do not study very consciously, and I need the supervision and guidance from the English teacher. Otherwise, I will not consciously go to the online platform to complete the task.“ Similar to offline classroom teaching, online micro-class video English teaching methods are critical to promoting English learning motivation and maintaining good online learning completion rates. English teaching attraction includes English teaching design, methods, and evaluation. When EFL students perceive that teaching methods are flexible and interesting, students’ English learning motivation will be higher. For example: “The teacher’s teaching methods are very interesting, and they integrate theory with practice. I think they are useful, and I will watch them often.“ Some students believe that “the English teaching methods of micro-lecture videos are flexible and diverse, and teachers can use animation to show knowledge content. I find them very interesting, and I often log on and study them”.

5.2.2 English curriculum satisfaction

Satisfaction had a positive impact on continuance learning intention (Bashir, 2019; Chiu et al., 2005; Lee, 2010; Wang et al., 2014; Yang et al, 2022), which was consistent with the finding from this study. Specifically, English curriculum satisfaction modulates the relationship between pre-influencing factors and continuance intention through English curriculum design and English curriculum quality. The findings were consistent with results of Dang (2019) and Xiao and Jiang (2009). SPOC-based blended learning provides students with rich learning resources, including micro video, PPT courseware, electronic documents, paper textbooks, etc., to jointly promote students’ meaning construction of knowledge, which reflects the distribution characteristics of diversified media based on distributed cognitive theory (Zhou & Fu, 2002). Because SPOC-based blended learning organically integrates online learning and offline teaching in English content design, students pay more attention to the distribution logic of online and offline course content. Some students stated: “Online content is more practical if it is a supplement and review of offline classroom content, and I will complete it more actively.“ At the same time, some students said: “The homework on the online learning platform is not very practical. I can do it, but the English knowledge points in the offline class have nothing to do with the content on the online platform.“ “The English teacher talks too little in the classroom, and asks us to watch the micro-class video on the platform for extracurricular learning.“ In the in-depth interview, some students stated that if the online learning content and the content of classroom teaching were disconnected, students’ continuance intention to learn would be negatively affected. The selection of English curriculum resources involves practicality and workplace-oriented. Due to the EFL students’ learning characteristics of higher vocational education, students have low interest in purely theoretical English curriculum content (Wen, 2014). For example, “I do not prefer theoretical knowledge, but prefer English curriculum content that is closely related to my potential occupation in future”. Additionally, some students believe that teachers should provide them with more learning materials on CET certificate. For example, “I often go to the online platform to download English learning materials, and the resources there are very rich, especially the CET-4 learning materials. I often go to the platform to see if the latest English learning materials are available.“ By providing rich learning resources, it is convenient to carry out effective interaction between students and resource tools. When students participated in the SPOC-based blended learning environment, they will select learning resources based on their own needs and incorporate valuable knowledge into the internal information processing system (Hutchins, 1995; Qin, 2019).

5.2.3 SPOC learning platform assurance

The SPOC learning platform assurance adjusts the relationship between the pre-influencing factors and the continuance intention of online learning through two aspects: learning platform function and learning platform service. Jiang (2022) found that the learning platform was one of the four influencing factors on continuance learning behaviour, and Joo et al. (2018) found that the user interface affects the use intention of online learning through perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use.

Learning platform functional is based on the objective perspective of the online learning platform in the SPOC-based blended learning environment. It refers to the special functions the online learning platform provides the students with so that they can meet their learning needs (Jiang, 2022). The SPOC-based blended learning provides students with a powerful online discussion area and offline face-to-face communication theory interaction, which reflects the individual distribution characteristics of distributed cognitive theory (Hutchins, 1995; Wang, 2021). In accordance with the findings of previous research conducted by Chiu et al. (2005), Lee (2010), Li and Han (2021), Ren (2021), and Wang et al. (2014), the current study found that platform satisfaction is one of the essential factors affect the continuance learning intention in blended learning environment. Differently, the current study classified the learning platform function into interaction assurance and feedback function specifically. The SPOC learning model will be recognized only when students feel that the features and function of the online learning platform can meet their learning needs, thereby promoting their continuance intention to learn online. If online learning experience is poor, students’ learning satisfaction will be negatively affected, which will diminish their learning intention. Interaction assurance means the function that the learning platform provides students and teachers to communicate with each other, including student-student interaction and teacher-student interaction. In communicating with teachers, students can not only solve course learning and platform use problems and improve their learning effect, but also compensate for the lack of their poor learning consciousness in higher vocational colleges, improve their learning environment, and promote continuance behaviors. For example: “If I ask English questions online, the teacher can answer them in a timely manner. Sometimes, other students will help solve them. The answers come from various angles, which inspires me a lot”. “It is more convenient to directly ask questions on the platform than on WeChat, a kind of social platform. Teachers and classmates help solve the problem together, and sometimes the teacher leaves a message on the platform to supervise us”. Zhao et al. (2018), based on the “stimulus organism response” model on the impact of perceived interactivity on online learning willingness, found that in learning interaction, the stronger the sense of control and mutual assistance, the higher the degree of their learning consciousness turning into continuous learning behavior. His conclusion is consistent with the results of this study. It is noteworthy that the diversified learning feedback function refers to the feedback judgment on the students’ learning processes or results, including homework and chapter tests, by online learning platform. This function can help students develop a high continuous willingness to learn online. The typical answers during the interview were: “The uploaded homework is sometimes in audio, video, and text comments form. The teacher evaluation is not only in the form of grades but also as comments or voice comments, which is very pleasant”. Wang found that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use enhanced platform users’ attitudes (Wang, 2009). The results of this study verify his view.

Learning platform service refers to the technical training and administrative assurance for students to conduct SPOC-based online learning. Like previous studies conducted by Dintoe (2019), Porter & Graham (2016), and Daud & Ghani (2019), a technical issue has been a significant factor influencing delivery of blended teaching. For example, “technical professionals should provide more online learning assistance”. “Technical services should be provided because I find it too complicated and labor-intensive to raise questions and upload exercises. Sometimes, as a liberal arts student, I am not willing to do that”. The relationship between the factors and continuous willingness of online learning has an impact, and this result is inconsistent with Xu’s (2016)’ finding that the equipment condition is not closely related to the students’ learning behavior awareness. For example, a student said, “Using a mobile phone to log in to an online platform sometimes easily drops out. I feel that the learning platform function is not good, so I do not want to log in next time”. “Sometimes there is no network”. Administrative assurance is an important influencing factor; it refers to the administrative requirements implemented by the school and relevant standards requirements needed for students (Bokolo, 2021; Dintoe, 2019).

6 Educational enlightenment

Based on literature findings, existing research on factors influencing students’ continuance intention to promote online learning focuses on the factors themselves (Cui et al., 2017; Li et al., 2021; Smith & Sivo, 2012; Wang & Gan, 2014). The stakeholders are systematically integrated, and there is a lack of relevant research on how different stakeholders who implement SPOC-based blended learning can promote and improve students’ continuance learning intention. According to Bandura’s social learning theory (Bandura, 2003), students’ learning intentions are affected by both internal and external environmental factors in the specific learning process. Based on this, the laws of students’ continuous learning intention under the SPOC-based blended learning environment can be explored through improving and adjusting external environmental factor variables (teachers, curriculum, resources, etc.) and internal individual variables (students themselves) (Ormrod, 2015; Qin, 2019; Solomon, 1993), hence, the goal of promoting students’ learning intention under the SPOC-based blended learning environment can be achieved. This research considers ways to improve students’ learning intention in SPOC-based blended learning environment from the stakeholders’ perspective. Figure 3 shows a systematic framework for improving students’ continuance intention to learn SPOC-based blended learning based on stakeholders, thereby promoting continuance learning behavior.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Systematical model of influencing factors of EFL students’ continuance learning intention based on stakeholders

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6.1 Meet students’ psychological needs based on the thinking of stakeholders

It can be seen from Fig. 3 that the continuance learning intention of EFL students in the SPOC-based blended learning environment is directly affected by English learning motivation and self-efficacy in english learning. Therefore, understanding students’ learning psychology of online learning and bringing a good learning experience can fundamentally improve students’ continuance learning intention.

6.1.1 Enhance students’ perception of english value

English curriculum resources and SPOC learning platform are main elements of students’ perception of online learning platforms. Currently, most online courses at this stage are offered by large-scale MOOC platforms outside the school or full-time teachers in the school. When implementing SPOC-based online and offline blended learning, teachers or curriculum providers conduct a targeted transformation of the online learning and offline teaching content, such as the logical distribution of online and offline teaching content, design of English language knowledge points, and arrangement of assignments. Additionally, the school’s administrative department should pay attention to the students’ needs for a better learning atmosphere, good SPOC-based blended learning atmosphere, blended learning community, and interaction platform based on SPOC.

6.1.2 Customize the new learning experience for students

Providers of online learning platforms can use data mining technology and 5G technology to create new learning experiences, and improve EFL students’ enthusiasm and motivation for online learning. For example, during the teaching evaluation stage, the language interaction and speech recognition function can be fully utilized to realize after-school homework evaluation, question answering, and so on, enabling students to obtain learning feedback the first time. At the same time, adaptive and big data technologies can be used to plan students’ learning progress, send knowledge points, detect learning deficiencies, and predict learning results. Second, based on the learning needs and interests of higher vocational college students, the school administrative department can add functional areas on the self-built learning platform to enhance the interactive experience. For example, the interactive reward function or the method of rewarding user levels according to the frequency of interaction increases the frequency of student-student interaction and teacher-student interaction, promotes students’ interest in using the platform, and improves students’ continuance learning behavior.

6.2 Adapt to online learning situation needs based on stakeholder thinking

Three factors, including English teachers’ teaching, SPOC learning platform assurance, and English curriculum satisfaction, adjust the influence of students’ English learning motivation, self-efficacy in English learning, and online learning continuance intention in the SPOC-based blended learning environment. As a stakeholder of English teachers’ teaching and English curriculum satisfaction, English teachers have an significant moderating influence on continuance learning intention. The online learning platform are closely related to the intervention and support of the school’s administrative and curriculum providers.

6.2.1 Reconstruct SPOC-based blended learning concept based on curriculum design

First, English teachers need to reconstruct EFL students’ SPOC-based blended learning awareness and ability based on curriculum design. Students need to abandon the inherent traditional classroom learning thinking mode, break the traditional classroom learning habits of thinking and path dependence, and understand and accept offline teaching and online learning in the SPOC-based blended learning environment are not separate but complementary and organically integrated. Students’ understanding of new things is underdeveloped in the beginning, and it is imperative for them to adapt to the pace of change and constantly update. Second, English teachers need to add CET-4 English language learning materials to the teaching platform as the needs of students and that of teaching materials related to students’ career and workplace development. This should be done to enhance students’ online learning experience and enable them to cultivate a continuous learning behavior of being “willing to learn in class, active to learn online”.

6.2.2 Strengthen teachers’ guidance and improve learning effect of SPOC

Students may take time to apply new technologies after being newly exposed to them; any new technology and innovative idea need to go through a specific approach and practice before it can materialize into a group action (Taherdoost, 2018). As mentioned above by the interviewee, a “learning effect is required.“ This implied that the interviewed students did not, until that point, feel the effect of the SPOC-based blended learning method in their school. School administrators and teachers should continuously improve and strengthen promotion of SPOC-based blended learning effects. Guidance in SPOC-blended learning and training as well as teaching effectiveness publicity should be regular and timely. Furthermore, English teachers should sufficiently guide and support students’ SPOC continuance learning behavior. From the perspective of students’ acceptance of SPOC-based blended learning, it is necessary to provide students with a “sense of achievement” and “sense of experience”. The actions and efforts by students can be seen and even recognized by teachers and schools, especially when the effect of SPOC-based blended learning is not obvious in the beginning. Teachers and schools need to give students time and encourage them to participate in SPOC-based blended learning.

6.2.3 Upgrade learning platform and enhance the sense of SPOC-based blended learning community

School administrators and learning platform providers can optimize and improve the online platform learning participation experience as much as possible based on existing technical conditions and cost factors. Establishing a learning community on a learning platform is an important way to enhance students’ continued willingness to learn online. Building a sense of community contributes to students’ learning engagement and continuance and can improve classroom satisfaction and perceived learning outcomes (Liu et al., 2007). Research shows that the establishment of a sense of community often depends on close and good interaction between students, and that non-verbal communication plays an important role in the process (Westheimer & Kahne, 1993). The function of “online sharing table” can be set up in the online classroom, so that the students who become the “tablemate” can communicate directly with each other. At the same time, the learning of other students who are not “tablemate” will not be affected.

7 Conclusions and implications

This paper recruited EFL students from three higher vocational colleges. Based on the grounded theory, the analysis software Nvivo was used to conduct a triple coding analysis of the text data obtained from the in-depth interviews and focus group interviews and built a theoretical model of the influencing factors of EFL students’ continuance learning intention in the SPOC-based blended learning environment (pre-influencing factors, external situational factors, continuance intention). Based on this theoretical model, the 5 categories include English learning motivation, self-efficacy in English learning, English teachers’ teaching, English curriculum satisfaction, and SPOC learning platform assurance. Among them, students’ English learning motivation and self-efficacy in English learning are the pre-influencing factors; the other three belong to external situational factors.

Compared to previous theoretical models used by Abbas (2016), Artina (2010), Bao (2017), Yang (2015), Yang et al. (2022), and Zhang et al. (2016), the theoretical model constructed in this study has been expanded in the following three aspects: First, English learning motivation and self-efficacy in English learning belong to students’ internal psychological factors, which are preconditions of continuance intention. There are factors that directly affect students’ continuance intentions to learning under SPOC-based blended learning setting. Second, English teachers’ teaching, English curriculum satisfaction, and SPOC learning platform assurance are situational factors, which play a mediating role in the influence of English learning motivation and self-efficacy in English learning on students’ continuance learning intentions. Third, the formation mechanism and constituent factors of the 5 main categories were: English learning motivation, self-efficacy in English learning, English teachers’ teaching, English curriculum satisfaction, and SPOC learning platform guarantee. Among them, English learning motivation is composed of interests of learning English and career development drive. Interest in English knowledge is the source of psychological awareness. career development drive refers to the strengthening of psychological awareness; self-efficacy in English learning is composed of self-perception of English knowledge and self-perception of learning concentration. Self-perception of English knowledge value is the basis of psychological awareness, and self-perception of learning concentration is psychological sublimation of consciousness. The English teachers’ teaching is composed of two factors: English teachers’ supervision and English teaching guidance. English teachers’ supervision is based on the organizational environment felt by students, and English teaching guidance is based on teachers’ competence. English curriculum satisfaction is composed of two factors: English curriculum design and English curriculum quality. The English curriculum design is based on the students’ evaluation of the English teaching form, and the English curriculum quality is based on the students’ evaluation of the English teaching content. The platform assurance mechanism is composed of two factors: learning platform function and learning platform service. Learning platform function is based on students’ evaluation of learning conditions, and learning platform service is based on students’ evaluation of learning assistance. The study results not only helped stakeholders improve the SPOC-based blended learning platform in a targeted manner and provide students with blended learning valuable advice but, more importantly, provided reference for basic theory and variable selection for the subsequent research on the influencing factors of students’ continuance learning intentions.

This study’s findings have theoretical implications. This study employed grounded theory to study EFL students’ continuance learning intention under SPOC-based blended learning environments, and the findings can provide a variety of variables for subsequent research to study the influencing factors on continuance intention in blended learning environment quantitatively; Second, the results of this study extended the research perspective of students’ continuous learning behavior in the SPOC-based blended learning environment, and provided a novel research perspective for the research of SPOC-based blended learning.

In practice, the strategy proposed in this study to improve students’ continuance learning intention under SPOC-based blended learning environments can not only provided methods for teachers who carry out the SPOC-based blended learning to improve students’ learning intention in blended learning environments, but also provided reference opinions for the curriculum and learning platform providers to design better textbooks and learning platforms that enhance students’ learning experience.

This study has limitations. Due to the limitation of research conditions, the number of samples selected in this study is limited, which may affect the reliability of research conclusions to some extent. Besides, this study uses qualitative research methods to construct a theoretical model, which has not been tested by quantitative research on large-scale samples, and therefore, lacks empirical support. Accordingly, follow-up research should expand the scope of the research sample and to verify and strengthen this study’s results quantitatively.