1 Introduction

Teachers’ Digital Competency in education has provided more variation in the process of teaching and learning [1]. One of the defining features of development today is also the relationship between education and technology, stimulated by the spectacular growth in internet connectivity and mobile penetration [2]. Even though such technologies have expanded opportunities for freedom of expression and social, civic, and political mobilization, they also raise important concerns. Given the benefits it provides, digital competency can be seen as a significant and practical pedagogical tool in the field of education. The school's teachers must encourage and assist the pupils in using technology and give them the same recommendations for available websites that can help them develop [3, 4].

Eritrea started a reforming educational process after gaining its independence in 1991, and it is still going strong now. Learner-centered education (LCE) has been a focus for Eritrea, like many other developing nations in the Middle East and the Horn of Africa, and has received widespread national backing through training [5, 6]. Many developing countries around the world, including some middle-income nations and underprivileged populations in more developed areas, have established national policies encouraging teachers to embrace learner-centered pedagogies and digital-integrated teaching methods [7, 8]. For the newly independent nation, digital-integrated teaching known as Learner-Centered Pedagogy was judged to be the ideal alternative to traditional talk and chalk termed teacher-centered education [5, 9,10,11]. It is thought to be a successful response to the "dominance of traditional teaching, which is blamed for encouraging rote learning and stifling critical and creative thinking among students." As Majumdar [12], notes "Digital technology-free instruction puts less strain on students. However, ICT-integrated instruction encourages active learning and calls for students to take more initiative in both the teaching and learning processes [13]. As Weng et al. [14], observe, "To experience deep and meaningful learning, all learners must engage with and construct knowledge" Sangkawetai et al. [13], see in learner-centeredness the desire to make teaching responsive to learners’ needs and ensure that they play a participating role in their instruction.

The government of Eritrea supports learner-centered instruction that incorporates digital technology for all of its trainee instructors. The Post-Graduation Education Teacher Diploma (PGD) for pre-and in-service teachers was introduced in 2019, to strike a balance between theory and practice and encourage teachers to work for more learner-centered interactive pedagogy and digital practices, even though the elementary college teacher's college and the middle and high school teacher colleges were established since independence [6]. Additionally, the national educational policy paper Toward Education for All makes it clear that teachers must approach teaching and learning from a learner-centered perspective [15]. For instance, in the Eritrean curriculum, the learners' pre-existing knowledge, abilities, interests, and understanding from experiences both within and outside of school serve as the beginning point. All young people's innate curiosity and desire to learn to explore and make sense of an expanding universe must be fostered and supported by difficult and worthwhile assignments [16].

There is, however, ample proof that classroom digital integration in education has not taken hold and that teachers are not usually conceptually aware of the practice [17]. Despite initiatives to introduce and explain digital technology-integrated teaching, research has shown that teachers have a limited or overly simplistic understanding of how to use digital technologies [3, 18, 19]. Teachers in the tough setting of Eritrea have developed their collaborative learner-centered education professional development by equating it to "group work" [17]. It also states that “teachers’ questions do not progress beyond content and comprehension level” during teaching and learning, which raises concerns regarding the use of digital technology integration in classrooms [20].

In the context of teaching and learning in Eritrea, this study aims to explore teachers' opinions and excitement for using digital technology in the classroom. Although there are many stories of the application of digital technology techniques in diverse contexts, Eritrea is a developing nation where little research has been performed. Teachers who have effectively assimilated and utilized digital technology techniques in the classroom are articulating what national policies need and what society expects students to learn. They are also building educational experiences that promote students' learning.

Teachers who are familiar with digital technology aid students' learning by fostering critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity. They strive to provide a learning environment where students can have significant learning experiences. However, in practice, teachers confront obstacles that restrict their ability, such as the fact that they have not personally used digital skills. According to [21], assumptions that may be beyond the professional capacity of teachers given their training may prevent them from making the transition from traditional talk-and-chalk approaches to digital technology-integrated learner-centered approaches, which require the acquisition of great skill and understanding. Thus, a lack of training in the new pedagogy may prevent teachers from facilitating the learning process [22]. Teachers’ assumption that learner-centered education places the learner at the center of teaching and learning without any digital technology practices has hampered the introduction and integration of digital technology in education. Some instructors have given up their duty to provide instruction, discipline, and care for students in favor of the notion that students are in charge of their learning and that teachers serve as facilitators. Digital technology integration appears to be widely misunderstood in terms of what it entails [23].

Teachers confront numerous difficulties even if learner-centeredness and ICT practice in education are approaches that prioritize interactive general inquiry and problem-solving abilities [24, 25]. As Ghavifekr et al. [26] observed in the classroom, digital technology practice in education is still very much alive. The fact that some teachers have modified their brand of learner-centered and ICT practices instruction by incorporating group, pair, and solo work into classroom activities should also be acknowledged [27, 28]. For both students and teachers, this revolution in methodology has resulted in a change in how they view their respective roles and duties [29]. This change requires students to be knowledge producers and developers rather than information consumers, suggesting that the new digital technology integrated pedagogical techniques are difficult for both students and teachers [30, 31]. It’s also important to consider the management of curricula and education. According to the notion of learner-centeredness and digital technology practices, learners should be a continuous point of reference rather than the sole one [32]. It will be instructive to examine a snapshot of how teachers perceive and integrate digital technologies into their practice.

2 Research context

Eritrea as a developing African country is still challenged by the small economy with a growing population of 4 million. At present 300,000 students receive education each year with a very small teachers’ number. Asmara College of Education is the only teacher-training institute established in 1994 under the University of Asmara, where the faculty was offering several programs on teacher education. With the relocation of different colleges and student enrolments the government of the state of Eritrea constructing infrastructures to overcome access to education challenges but the quality of teachers and their numbers remain a big challenge. Still, unqualified teachers who are not from the teacher training institutes are found employed in this profession. In addition, the scarcity of in-service training in the teaching profession is considered a major challenge for the deterioration in the quality of education in the Eritrean context [5].

According to Tedla [16], the Eritrean National ICT policy, ICT as a Teaching and Learning Tool stated the following points:

  • ICT in education as a key contributor to improving the quality of education in Eritrea, and engendering life-long learning skills, such as information processing, critical thinking, and problem-solving.

  • ICT will be integrated both vertically and horizontally throughout the educational provision of Eritrea.

  • Human capacity and infrastructure will be developed to support this institutional deployment to ensure all stakeholders in the education sector have basic ICT literacy skills and are appropriately trained to respond to pedagogical and managerial needs.

  • The Ministry of Education will actively develop multimedia materials and other media-related tools for teaching and learning

  • The provision of ICT as a teaching and learning tool in the education sector will include radio, audio cassette recorders, video cassette recorders, DVD players and recorders, television, analog and cellular telephones, computers, satellite downlink and uplink technology, the Internet, and other digital technologies.

College of Education was established as a unit in the 1993/94 academic year at the then University of Asmara (UoA). Then it advanced/upgraded into a faculty in 1997. In 2003 the faculty was established as the College of Education and was relocated to the Eritrea Institute of Technology (EIT). Currently, as of 2018, the college has relocated back to Asmara and made some changes in the structure and organization of the courses and programs which are currently providing training and labeled as Post-graduate Diploma for great performing teachers. Over the years, the College of Education has been offering many courses in line with the College of Science in Eritrea Institutes of Technology. However, as per the directive of the National Higher Education and Research Institutions (NHERI), which was undertaken at the beginning of the 2018/19 academic year, the College of Education was moved from Eritrea Institute of Technology Mainefhi to the capital Asmara, and officially named as Asmara College of Education. Asmara College of Education has four departments, namely: Department of Educational Psychology and Administration, Department of Social Science Education, Department of Natural Science Education, and Department of English Language Teaching not only this the college provides ICT skills courses as a none-credited enrichment course [33].

Modern learning and teaching methods are dynamically evolving, and new inventions are being made every day. As a result of the technology's rapid development, teaching and learning through it are becoming more and more successful, and people all over the world are adopting it [34, 35]. The Eritrean new generation is also embracing the digital world, but without scientific study and research, we cannot be certain about the impact and effectiveness of this change. Because these new teaching and learning methods through technology are being introduced globally, in this case how we interconnect and use it in our schools and whether are we familiar with it, as well as what could be its impact should be measured properly because our future depends upon it are some concerns that need.

3 Statement of the problem

The title “Teachers' Challenges on their enthusiasm for digital competency and its impact on their teaching” was chosen to identify the principal difficulties that teachers have while implementing technology to ensure digital competency. The majority of Eritrea's secondary schools lack the technological infrastructure, traditional teaching methods, teacher training programs, and teachers' awareness of, and attitudes toward, teaching and learning for students using digital technologies, and I believe these factors together are what are preventing the integration of digital technology in these schools. However, this affects the neighborhood as well as the areas around the school. Prioritizing technology instruction is necessary to ensure that no kid is left behind in the classroom. Regardless of their economic situation or level of incapacity, all people have the right to access technology.

Digital competency is viewed as a tool to transform education, enhance the curriculum, advance pedagogy, and enhance student learning [36, 37]. The teachers' initiative is crucial to the successful integration of digital technologies in teaching and learning. The primary goal of integrating digital technology into the curriculum is to support students in growing their proficiency with digital technology usage, management, and comprehension. But to do this, the teachers themselves must be prepared and competent in digital technology. They must be prepared to deal with their students, who are largely "Digital Natives" and accustomed to using all technology equipment, in terms of digital technology abilities. According to earlier research, the use of technology or computers by teachers is a difficult process and digital technology integration is a complex issue [38]. Within years of implementing various technology initiatives in Eritrean education systems [5], reported that teachers’ level of digital competency and readiness was still low. In general, there are not many studies in Eritrea context on in-service teachers’ digital competency in teaching and learning [6, 15, 39]. However, the proposed study also aimed to look into the teachers’ levels of ICT skills. In addition, it also intended to investigate whether their years of teaching and experience in using computers correlate with the use of ICT for teaching and learning and whether there are differences in competency between male and female teachers and those in different age groups. The study of Lin et al. [40] and Oguguo et al. [11], checked the demography of the participant’s gender and its significance with the readiness for digital technology practice, they found there is a significant difference that females are more ready to practice ICT and their digital competencies.

4 Research questions

This study guided by the following research questions:

  • How do teachers perceive their digital competency in the teaching profession and their readiness for the integration of ICT in education?

  • Are there any correlations between the teachers’ readiness with Age, Gender, and experience with the effects of digital competency on their teaching practices?

  • Are there any significant impacts in terms of teaching performance by digital competencies in classrooms between male and female teachers, and between teachers in different age groups?

5 Research methodology

The general methodology and methods used to collect the study's data are covered in this section. The research design for mixed methods and the argument for using a quantitative research technique were the main topics of the first section. The second section goes through the sample size, data-gathering tools, and data analysis techniques. The study's research ethics are discussed in the third section.

5.1 Research design

The study employed a quantitative approach throughout the paper. Researchers enable a comprehensive understanding of teachers’ perceptions of ICT integration in education. It also assisted the researcher in explaining and enhancing the quality of the findings found from quantitative [41]. For example, the participants involved in the survey can provide limited information about their readiness and the impact of digital competency on academic life due to closed questions. Nevertheless, through semi-structured interviews deep information on their perception and practice of ICT in education for better teaching performance could be obtained.

Thus, the survey method approach is meant to answer the main research question of this research paper “In what and how activities do teachers use digital technologies in their students’ education at school” This can be described numerically using a rating scale and qualitatively the form of text [42]. To this end, the quantitative findings were collected using questionnaires [43]. Finally, the data collected from questionnaires was analyzed and interpreted.

5.2 Sampling size and sampling site

The sampling size of the study comprises 150 participants but n = 141 returned. The participants consisted of teachers and pedagogy head principals who used ICT and those who did not. The research study was conducted on teachers deployed for teaching practice in middle and high schools of Asmara. This sampling site was selected purposively for the current study due to the researcher’s familiarity and its unique characteristics in terms of the large number of teachers enrolled every year.

5.3 Data collection instruments

In this study, a questionnaire was employed to collect the data for answering the research questions of this study, the functional validation process of the Technological Empowered and Pedagogical Model (TEP) for the development of Digital Teaching Competence (DTC) in Initial Teacher Training and he addressed the methodological approach that corresponds to Research Based on Design. The reliability of 141 integration of digital technology on education items was 0.748 when tested by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. This indicates that the questionnaire is reliable with consistent responses from the participants. The questionnaire includes twenty items of closed-ended questions and teachers. Among these questions, five demographic questions were to identify the significance of gender, age, academic level or status, teaching experience, and teaching as their choice. Meanwhile, six readiness questions and nine impact questions were asked to rate these statements on the point of five Likert scale where 1 = Strong Disagree (SDA), 2 = Disagree (DA), 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree (A) and 5 = Strong Agree (SA).

To incorporate the Teachers’ perspective, the researcher employed a stratified random sampling procedure, which includes teachers who apply digital technology and those who don’t in collecting the data through a survey. This is because stratified sampling enables the researcher to include the representatives from each sample group in the study [44, 45]. Then, questionnaires were distributed to the respondents randomly. The rationale for using random sampling in this study was that random sampling gives the sample population an equal chance of participation [46]. According to Pinto et al. [45], stated that the technologically mediated and pedagogical model (TEP) for the creation of Digital Teaching Competence (DTC) in initial teacher preparation, as well as the methodological approach that aligns with research-based design.

5.4 Data analysis

The quantitative data collected from different teachers and their corresponding analyses give a general picture of the study was analyzed by SPSS 25 and both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to interpret the results. A simple correlation to regression analysis has been used. The qualitative data collected through interviews and their analysis then illuminated the quantitative results obtained. Narrative text analysis was used to analyze the data collected through interviews, giving meaningful interpretation and discussion. Furthermore, the qualitative findings were merged with the findings and discussions of the quantitative data to address the research questions.

5.5 Research ethical consideration

Before distributing the questionnaires, the researcher informed the teachers that the data collected would be used for research purposes and that the information gathered would also be kept confidential. To enable this, on the front page of the questionnaire, a statement was written that informs about the purpose of the research and the confidentiality of the responses of the respondents. Moreover, the participants were assured that the researcher would not use their real names in the study to keep their identity. Participants were informed taking part in this study may not benefit them directly, but knowledge, ideas, and opinions may be added to the present study, which might benefit others. The researcher also informed them that it is free to withdraw and leave the study at any time without affecting his/her relationship with the researcher. Finally, the participants were asked to review the informed consent form and put his/her signature on the consent form.

6 Results and findings

6.1 Demographic analysis

The demographic analysis revealed that most of the teachers are male (104) comprising almost 74 percent of the sample. This is showing the male dominance in educational jobs in Eritrea. Most have having BA/BSc degree as their education which is the minimum required qualification criteria for educational teachers at the senior high school level. Others in this represent uncertified from the Colleges. Out of 141 teachers, only 55 teachers have In-service training experience showing the lack of in-service training opportunities available to the teachers in Eritrea. In the current study, as they come to the college selected with their grade experience, therefore, experience wise most of the teachers were experienced teachers meaning they have more than 6 to 10 years. Finally, most of the sample teachers were from the Maekel (central region) part of Eritrea where high students and schools exist.

6.2 Descriptive statistics

The descriptive statistics show that the average mean values of both variables (Readiness, Impact) are more than 3. This shows a positive score related to these variables. This means that teachers’ perception of their readiness related to ICT is good. Their perception of the impact of ICT integration on their teaching performance is also very high and positive.

Some of them use it sometimes and some of them seldom try to use it. Some of them do not use it because they lack pedagogical knowledge on how to integrate it and have no skill to operate it. Few of them mentioned that they hardly use it because of the improper infrastructure and lack of resources access.

6.3 Normality analysis

The histogram figure shows the normal distribution of the data. Though there are slight points where data is above the normal points overall, the data shows a normal distribution and fit for further analysis. The normal distribution can be also checked by the histogram as the bell shape of it also indicates that the variable score is normally distributed, unimodal (one mode).

The graph of the histogram is also symmetrical as in the figure (Fig. 1) show the raw data is normally distributed. This can be summarized below.

  • Bell-shaped

  • Unimodal

  • Approximately symmetrical

Fig. 1
figure 1

The normality distribution curve of the data collected

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7 Relationship between teacher readiness to digital technology integration and its impact on their performance

7.1 Correlation analysis

The correlation analysis shows that readiness and impact variables are positively and significantly related to each other. The relation is moderately positive as the value of correlation is 0.576. Furthermore, the regression coefficient values show that the value of the R-square is 0.332. That means 33 percent of the variation is explained by this model. The Durbin-Watson value is also close to 2, which proves that the model is fit for analysis. The regression coefficient values are positive and significant proving a positive relationship between these variables. The values show that one unit increase in readiness leads to a 0.57 percent increase in the impact variable. These results show the importance of teacher readiness related to digital technology integration on their teaching performance. The finding also shows that teachers who engage more often with digital competency in activities are more likely to have a positive impact on teaching performance (Tables 1, 2, 3, 4)

Table 1 The participant’s demographic information of ICT usage in teaching learning
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Table 2 The participant’s readiness variables and impact variables
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Table 3 The correlation analysis between readiness and impact
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Table 4 The regression analysis model summary
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7.2 Regression analysis

To check and ensure the teachers’ readiness for digital technology practices from the research conducted, their responses to the second question Most of them replied that they use or integrate digital technology based on teaching and learning processes when there is Audio and some video in a time needed by their effort, while others create their means like bringing an Audio player which works by hard battery (charge) of their own and they try to integrate the listening lesson with the Audio they brought. However, some of them never used the digital technology integhe teaching and learning process.

The table above Table 5. Shows the statistical significance of digital competency and its impact on teaching which are positively significant.

Table 5 Statistical significance of readiness of ICT usage and impact on teaching
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8 Discussion

The current study explored how readiness for digital competency relates to impact activities in teaching and digital skills and the perceived usefulness of digital technologies for learning. The study by Gabarda Méndez et al. [3], specifically inspected whether different ICT-integrated activities, different types of digital skills, and perceived impact increased satisfaction of and interest in digital competency for learning. The outcomes show perceived usefulness of digital technology strongly predicts an increased impact on learning in terms of both readiness and satisfaction. This result is in line with previous studies [47]. Teaching interest describes how teachers respond to a particular topic leading to learners' attention, and teachers who have a higher interest and readiness in using digital technologies are more likely to possess positive attitudes toward learning results and display high satisfaction [48].

Also, the findings of correlations indicate that the teachers have similar perceptions regarding the impacts of digital technology practices on teaching and student learning regardless of their years of teaching and digital technology experience [4, 48]. In addition, as in Lynch et al. [49] and Oguguo et al. [11] study, female teachers need to use digital technology in practice more frequently but in our study, there is no significant difference in gender readiness. Finally, experienced teachers are more ready to use digital technology in practice in their teaching and significantly more frequently than their novice colleagues for teaching and learning, searching educational resources, and creating presentation/delivery materials [21]. Thus, senior teachers should be encouraged to use technology in their teaching and learning activities more frequently so that they will not be left behind in terms of digital competency. Teachers whose teaching profession is their first choice are those who frequently apply digital technology practice in their teaching therefore, they are most ready for digital competency.

Findings clearly show the perceived usefulness and ease of use of digital technology usage in teaching and learning, implying the significance of attitudes toward high students’ achievements when teachers are ready to practice as similar to other relevant studies [13, 14]. Furthermore, our findings suggest that those who are ready and confident in understanding digital devices, such as PCs and smartphones, are more likely to experience the positive impact associated with digital competency. It is worth noting that device literacy is one of the strongest predictors of online learning satisfaction overall [49].

Finally, as the attention increased, this current study desires that teacher education programs prepare prospective teachers to be ready for future challenges related to digital competency in teaching and learning [15]. Student teachers may find it efficient to teach from available digital sources should also be supported by providing examples of how technology could be maximized for their future classroom [16]. Teacher educators should model how digital skills are implemented in classrooms [11]. For example, Science teacher educators could address how to teach specific learning materials by using several technology devices. The student teachers’ first-hand experiences in using technology for their learning may, in turn, determine the success of digital technology integration in their future teaching [50].

9 Conclusion

In general, Eritrean school’ teachers are ready to enhance digital competency but, not competent in basic digital technology skills and also poor in internet applications for accessing and sharing information and internet applications for communication purposes. In addition, those who have some skills also still lack competencies in advanced technology skills including graphics, animation, and multimedia production. Thus, the teachers should be exposed to training related to these skills. Also, the findings of correlations indicate that the teachers have similar perceptions regarding the impacts of digital technology usage on teaching and student learning regardless of their years of teaching and computer experience. Thus, senior teachers should be encouraged to use digital technology in their teaching and learning activities more frequently so that they will not be left behind in terms of digital technology skills.

This also suggests that teachers are required to progress their capacity for effectively using new technologies in their teaching. Effective teaching with technology requires that teachers develop their digital capabilities. Finally, the findings also highlight the need for support from relevant stakeholders, and the readiness of pre-service teacher programs to train their student-teachers for future actual teaching contexts. Therefore, teaching should be by choice not only by assigning a teacher because of paper certification. Teaching is not an add-on profession that everyone can do. The researcher can also conclude that teachers’ perception of their readiness for digital technology practices in teaching significantly impacts their teaching and learning.

10 Limitations and future directions of the study

While the findings in this study are informative and encouraging, the research method does have a limitation. This study was conducted on Postgraduate student-teachers who were under teaching practice for one year at Asmara College of Education, using a suitable sampling method. Therefore, the results may not adequately represent Eritrean teachers more broadly, and generalizations from the results of this study should be made cautiously. It is also expected that future work could address in-depth exploration to seek further information from the perspectives of the in-service teachers, lecturers, or other instructors to gain a more comprehensive picture of the phenomenon.