Location via proxy:   [ UP ]  
[Report a bug]   [Manage cookies]                
International Journal of Wildland Fire International Journal of Wildland Fire Society
Journal of the International Association of Wildland Fire
RESEARCH ARTICLE

LANDFIRE: a nationally consistent vegetation, wildland fire, and fuel assessment

Matthew G. Rollins
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

US Geological Survey, Center for Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS), Sioux Falls, SD 57198, USA. Email: mrollins@usgs.gov

International Journal of Wildland Fire 18(3) 235-249 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF08088
Submitted: 29 May 2007  Accepted: 1 July 2008   Published: 28 May 2009

Abstract

LANDFIRE is a 5-year, multipartner project producing consistent and comprehensive maps and data describing vegetation, wildland fuel, fire regimes and ecological departure from historical conditions across the United States. It is a shared project between the wildland fire management and research and development programs of the US Department of Agriculture Forest Service and US Department of the Interior. LANDFIRE meets agency and partner needs for comprehensive, integrated data to support landscape-level fire management planning and prioritization, community and firefighter protection, effective resource allocation, and collaboration between agencies and the public. The LANDFIRE data production framework is interdisciplinary, science-based and fully repeatable, and integrates many geospatial technologies including biophysical gradient analyses, remote sensing, vegetation modelling, ecological simulation, and landscape disturbance and successional modelling. LANDFIRE data products are created as 30-m raster grids and are available over the internet at www.landfire.gov, accessed 22 April 2009. The data products are produced at scales that may be useful for prioritizing and planning individual hazardous fuel reduction and ecosystem restoration projects; however, the applicability of data products varies by location and specific use, and products may need to be adjusted by local users.


Acknowledgements

For all their hard work on the LANDFIRE project, I thank: Ann Wolf, Birgit Peterson, Brendan Ward, Chris Toney, Donald Long, Greg Dillon, James Napoli, Jeff Natharius, Jennifer Bushur, Jody Bramel, Julia Lippert, Karen Iverson, Katrina Kreyenhagen, Kevin Ryan, Kristine Lee, Lisa Holsinger, Marc Weber, Matt Reeves, Maureen Mislivets, Sean Parks, Thomas Thompson, and Tobin Smail, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station; Chris Winne, Christine Frame, Deborah Lissfelt, Heather Kreilick, John Caratti, Karen Short, and Stacey Romeo, Systems for Environmental Management; Jim Smith, Kori Blankenship, Randy Swaty, Darren Johnson, The Nature Conservancy; Brian Tolk, Donald Ohlen, Kurtis Nelson, Jim Vogemlann, Jay Kost, Russell Johnson, Xuexia Chen, USGS National Center for Earth Resources Observation Sciences; Henry Bastian, Department of Interior, Office of Wildland Fire Management; Bruce Jeske, Daniel Crittenden, USDA Forest Service Washington Office, and Zhiilang Zhu, USDA Forest Service Research and Development. I also thank Bernhard Bahro, Don Yasuda, and Larry Hood, USDA Forest Service Region 5, for preparing and making available the map used as Fig. 3.


References


Albini FA (1999) Crown fire spread rate modeling. Progress Report RJVA RMRS-99525. On file at the Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory. (Missoula, MT)

Allen CD, Betancourt JL, Swetnam TW (1998) Landscape changes in the south-western United States: techniques, long-term data sets and trends. In ‘Perspectives on the Land Use History of North America: a Context for Understanding our Changing Environment’. (Ed. TD Sisk) US Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Biological Science Report USGS/BRD/BSR–1998-0003. pp. 71–84. (Reston, VA) Available at http://biology.usgs.gov/luhna/cover.html [Verified April 2007]

Anderson HE (1982) Aids to determining fuel models for estimating fire behavior. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-GTR-122. (Ogden, UT) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_int/int_gtr122.html [Verified April 2008]

Andrews PL (1986) BEHAVE: fire behavior prediction and fuel modeling system – BURN subsystem. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-GTR-194. (Ogden, UT)

Andrews PL , Bevins CD (1999) BEHAVE Fire Modeling System: redesign and expansion. Fire Management Notes  59, 16–19.
Beukema SJ, Kurz WA, Pinkham CB, Milosheva K, Frid L (2003) ‘VDDT user’s guide’, version 4.4c. (ESSA Technologies, Ltd: Vancouver, BC) Available at http://www.essa.com/downloads/vddt/download.htm [Verified April 2008]

Breiman L, Frieman JH, Olshen RA, Stone CJ (1984) ‘Classification and Regression Trees.’ (Wadsworth: Belmont, CA)

Brohman RJ, Bryant LD (Eds) (2005) Existing vegetation classification and mapping technical guide. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-67. (Washington, DC) Available at www.fs.fed.us/emc/rig/documents/integrated_inventory/FS_ExistingVEG_classif_mapping_TG_05.pdf [Verified April 2009]

Brown JK (1995) Fire regimes and their relevance to ecosystem management. In ‘Managing Forests to Meet Peoples’ Needs: Proceedings of the 1994 Society of American Foresters/Canadian Institute of Forestry Convention’, 18–22 September 1994, Anchorage, AK. pp. 171–178. (Society of American Foresters: Bethesda, MD)

Caratti JF (2006) The LANDFIRE reference database. In ‘The LANDFIRE Prototype Project: Nationally Consistent and Locally Relevant Geospatial Data for Wildland Fire Management’. (Eds MG Rollins, CK Frame) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-175, pp. 69–98. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr175/rmrs_gtr175_069_098.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Cihlar J (2000) Land cover mapping of large areas from satellites: status and research priorities. International Journal of Remote Sensing  21, 1093–1114.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Cleland DT, Freeouf JA, Keys JEJr, Nowacki GJ, Carpenter CA, McNab WH (2007) Ecological subregions: sections and subsections for the conterminous United States [1:3 500 000]. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76. (CD-ROM) (Washington, DC)

Cohen WB, Fiorella M, Gray J, Helmer E , Anderson K (1998) An efficient and accurate method for mapping forest clear-cuts in the Pacific North-west using Landsat imagery. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing  64(4), 293–300.
Comer P, Faber-Langendoen D, Evans R, Gawler S, Josse C, Kittel G, Menard S, Pyne M, Reid M, Schulz K, Snow K, Teague J (2003) ‘Ecological systems of the United States: a working classification of US terrestrial systems.’ (NatureServe: Arlington, VA) Available at http://www.natureserve.org/library/usEcologicalsystems.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Covington WW, Everett RL, Steele RW, Irwin LI, Daerand TA , Auclair AD (1994) Historical and anticipated changes in forest ecosystems of the Inland West of the United States. Journal of Sustainable Forestry  2, 13–63.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Daubenmire R (1968) ‘Plant Communities, a Textbook of Plant Synecology.’ (Harper-Row: New York)

Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Ecoregions of North America. Available at http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/ecoregions.htm [Verified April 2008]

Finney MA (1998) FARSITE: Fire Area Simulator – model development and evaluation. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Research Paper RMRS-RP-4. (Fort Collins, CO)

Finney MA (2005) The challenge of quantitative risk analysis for wildland fire. Forest Ecology and Management  211(1–2), 97–108.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Frescino TS, Rollins MG (2006) Mapping potential vegetation type for the LANDFIRE prototype project. In ‘The LANDFIRE Prototype Project: Nationally Consistent and Locally Relevant Geospatial Data for Wildland Fire Management’. (Eds MG Rollins, CK Frame) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-175, pp. 181–196. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr175/rmrs_gtr175_181_196.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Friedl MA , Brodley CE (1997) Decision tree classification of land cover from remotely sensed data. Remote Sensing of Environment  61(3), 399–409.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Graves T, Stetz J, Swindell B, Kendall K (2006) Estimating grizzly bear population size at an ecosystem scale: GIS in Design and Implementation of the Northern Divide Grizzly Bear Project. In ‘Intermountain GIS Conference’, 4 April 2006, Helena, MT. (Montana Association of Geographic Information Professionals: Helena, MT)

Grossman DH, Faber-Langendoen D, Weakley AS, Anderson M, Bourgeron P, Crawford R, Goodin K, Landaal S, Metzler K, Patterson K, Pyne M, Reid M, Sneddon L (1998) ‘International Classification of Ecological Communities: Terrestrial Vegetation of the United States. Volume I. The National Vegetation Classification System: Development, Status, and Applications.’ (The Nature Conservancy: Arlington, VA) Available at http://www.natureserve.org/library/vol1.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Hann WJ , Bunnell DL (2001) Fire and land management planning and implementation across multiple scales. International Journal of Wildland Fire  10, 389–403.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Hann WJ, Wisdom MJ, Rowland MM (2003) Disturbance departure and fragmentation of natural systems in the Interior Columbia Basin. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Research Paper PNW-RP-545. (Portland, OR)

Hann W, Shlisky A, Havlina D, Schon K, Barrett S, DeMeo T, Pohl K, Menakis J, Hamilton D, Jones J, Levesque M (2004) ‘Interagency Fire Regime Condition Class Guidebook.’ (National Interagency Fire Center: Boise, ID) Available at http://www.frcc.gov/ [Verified April 2008]

Hardy CC, Schmidt KM, Menakis JP , Samson RN (2001) Spatial data for national fire planning and fuel management. International Journal of Wildland Fire  10(4), 353–372.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Henderson JA, Peter DH, Lescher RD, Shaw DS (1989) Forested plant associations of the Olympic National Forest. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Technical Paper R6-ECOL-TP-001–88. (Portland, OR)

Holsinger L, Keane RE, Parsons RA, Karau E (2006a) Development of biophysical gradient layers for the LANDFIRE prototype project. In ‘The LANDFIRE Prototype Project: Nationally Consistent and Locally Relevant Geospatial Data for Wildland Fire Management’. (Eds MG Rollins, CK Frame) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-175, pp. 99–122. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr175/rmrs_gtr175_099_122.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Holsinger L, Keane RE, Steele B, Reeves M, Pratt SD (2006b) Using historical simulations of vegetation to assess departure of current vegetation conditions across large landscapes. In ‘The LANDFIRE Prototype Project: Nationally Consistent and Locally Relevant Geospatial Data for Wildland Fire Management’. (Eds MG Rollins, CK Frame) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-175, pp. 315–366. (Fort Collins, CO)

Homer C, Huang C, Yang L, Wylie B , Coan M (2004) Development of a 2001 national landcover database for the United States. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing  70, 829–840.
Huang C, Yang L, Wylie B, Homer CG (2001) A strategy for estimating tree canopy density using Landsat 7 ETM+ and high resolution images over large areas. In ‘Proceedings Third International Conference on Geospatial Information in Agriculture and Forestry’, 5–7 November 2001, Denver, CO. (Environmental Research Institute of Michigan: Ann Arbor, MI)

Huang C, Wylie B, Homer C, Yang L , Zylstra G (2002a) Derivation of a Tasseled cap transformation based on Landsat 7 at-satellite reflectance. International Journal of Remote Sensing  23(8), 1741–1748.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Irish RR (2000) ‘ETM+ Science Data User’s Handbook.’ Document No. 430–15–01–003–0. (US National Aeronautic and Space Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center: Greenbelt, MD) Available at http://landsathandbook.gsfc.nasa.gov/handbook/handbook_toc.html [Verified April 2008]

Keane RE, Holsinger L (2006) Simulating biophysical environment for gradient modeling and ecosystem mapping using the WXFIRE program: model documentation and application. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-168DVD. (Fort Collins, CO)

Keane RE, Burgan R , van Wagtendonk J (2001) Mapping wildland fuels for fire management across multiple scales: integrating remote sensing, GIS and biophysical setting. International Journal of Wildland Fire  10, 301–319.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Keane RE, Rollins MG, McNicoll CH, Parsons RA (2002b) Integrating ecosystem sampling, gradient modeling, remote sensing, and ecosystem simulation to create spatially explicit landscape inventories. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-92. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr092.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Keane RE, Frescino T, Reeves MC, Long J (2006a) Mapping wildland fuel across large regions for the LANDFIRE Prototype Project. In ‘The LANDFIRE Prototype Project: Nationally Consistent and Locally Relevant Geospatial Data for Wildland Fire Management’. (Eds MG Rollins, CK Frame) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-175, pp. 367–396. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr175/rmrs_gtr175_367_396.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Keane RE, Holsinger LM, Pratt SD (2006b) Simulating historical landscape dynamics using the landscape fire succession model LANDSUM version 4.0. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-171CD. (Fort Collins, CO)

Kessell SR, Fischer WC (1981) Predicting post-fire plant succession for fire management planning. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-94. (Ogden, UT)

Küchler AW (1964) ‘Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States.’ Special Publication No. 36. (American Geographical Society: New York)

Leenhouts B (1998) Assessment of biomass burning in the conterminous United States. Conservation Ecology. Available at http://www.consecol.org/vol2/iss1/art1 [Verified April 2008]

Long DB, Losensky J, Bedunah D (2006a) Vegetation succession modeling for the LANDFIRE Prototype Project. In ‘The LANDFIRE Prototype Project: Nationally Consistent and Locally Relevant Geospatial Data for Wildland Fire Management’. (Eds MG Rollins, CK Frame) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-175, pp. 217–276. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr175/rmrs_gtr175_217_276.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Long JL, Miller M, Menakis JP, Keane RE (2006b) Developing the LANDFIRE vegetation and biophysical settings map unit classifications for the LANDFIRE prototype project. In ‘The LANDFIRE Prototype Project: Nationally Consistent and Locally Relevant Geospatial Data for Wildland Fire Management’. (Eds MG Rollins, CK Frame) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-175, pp. 123–179. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr175/rmrs_gtr175_123_179.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Lutes D, Keane RE, Key C, Caratti J, Gangi L, Couch CC (2002) FIREMON: fire effects monitoring and inventory tool. USDA Forest Service, Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory. (Missoula, MT) Available at http://frames.nbii.gov/firemon [Verified April 2008]

Markham BL, Barker JL (1986) Landsat MSS and TM post-calibration dynamic ranges, exoatmospheric reflectances and at-satellite temperatures. EOSAT Landsat Technical Notes 1:3–8. Available at http://landsathandbook.gsfc.nasa.gov/handbook/pdfs/L5_cal_document.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Morgan P, Hardy C, Swetnam TW, Rollins MG , Long DG (2001) Mapping fire regimes across time and space: understanding coarse- and fine-scale fire patterns. International Journal of Wildland Fire  10, 329–342.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | National Interagency Fire Center (2007a) Fire information – wildland fire statistics. National Interagency Fire Center. (Boise, ID) Available at http://www.nifc.gov/fire_info/fire_stats.htm [Verified April 2008]

National Interagency Fire Center (2007b) Historical wildland firefighter fatality reports. National Interagency Fire Center. (Boise, ID) Available at http://www.nifc.gov/safety/reports/year.pdf [Verified April 2008]

National Interagency Fire Center (2007c) Wildland fire communicator’s guide. Available at http://www.nifc.gov/preved/comm_guide/wildfire/index2.html [Verified April 2008]

Ohmann JL , Gregory MJ (2002) Predictive mapping of forest composition and structure with direct gradient analysis and nearest-neighbor imputation in coastal Oregon, USA. Canadian Journal of Forest Research  32, 725–741.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Omernik J (1995) Ecoregions: a spatial framework for environmental management. In ‘Biological Assessment and Criteria: Tools for Water Resource Planning and Decision Making’. (Eds WS Davis, TP Simon) pp. 49–65. (Lewis Publishers: Boca Raton, FL)

Pfister RD , Arno SF (1980) Classifying forest habitat types based on potential climax vegetation. Forest Science  26(1), 52–70.
Pfister RD, Kovalchik BL, Arno SF, Presby RC (1977) Forest habitat types of Montana. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT 34. (Ogden, UT)

Pratt SD, Holsinger L, Keane RE (2006) Using simulation modeling to assess historical reference conditions for vegetation and fire regimes for the LANDFIRE Prototype Project. In ‘The LANDFIRE Prototype Project: Nationally Consistent and Locally Relevant Geospatial Data for Wildland Fire Management’. (Eds MG Rollins, CK Frame) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-175, pp. 277–315. (Fort Collins, CO)

Pyne SJ (1982) ‘Fire in America – a Cultural History of Wildland and Rural Fire.’ (Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ)

Quigley TM, Graham RT, Haynes RW (1996) Integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the Interior Columbia River Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, General Technical Report PNW-GTR-382. (Portland, OR) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/gtr_382a.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Reinhardt E, Lutes D, Scott J (2006) FuelCalc: a method for estimating fuel characteristics. In ‘Fuels Management – How to Measure Success: Conference Proceedings’, 28–30 March 2006, Portland, OR. (Eds PL Andrews, BW Butler) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Proceedings RMRS-P-41. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p041/rmrs_p041_273_282.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Rollins MG, Swetnam TW , Morgan P (2001) Evaluating a century of fire patterns in two Rocky Mountain wilderness areas using digital fire atlases. Canadian Journal of Forest Research  31, 2107–2123.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Rollins MG, Keane RE, Zhiliang Z, Menakis JP (2006) An overview of the LANDFIRE Prototype Project. In ‘The LANDFIRE Prototype Project: Nationally Consistent and Locally Relevant Geospatial Data for Wildland Fire Management’. (Eds MG Rollins, CK Frame) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-175, pp. 5–43. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr175/rmrs_gtr175_005_043.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Rothermel RC (1991) Predicting behavior and size of crown fires in the Northern Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Research Paper INT-438. (Ogden, UT)

Schmidt KM, Menakis JP, Hardy CC, Hann WJ, Bunnell DL (2002) Development of coarse-scale spatial data for wildland fire and fuel management. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-87. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr87.html [Verified April 2009]

Scott JH, Burgan RE (2005) Standard fire behavior fuel models: a comprehensive set for use with Rothermel’s surface fire spread model. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-153. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr153.pdf [Verified April 2008]

Thornton PE, Running SW , White MA (1997) Generating surfaces of daily meteorological variables over large regions of complex terrain. Journal of Hydrology  190, 214–251.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | US Congress (2003) Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003. (Washington, DC) Available at http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=108_cong_bills&docid=f:h1904enr.txt.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US Department of Agriculture (1995a) State soil geographic (STATSGO) data base: data use information. US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center, Miscellaneous Publication 1492. (Lincoln, NE) Available at http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/techtools/statsgo_db.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US Department of Agriculture (1995b) Soil survey geographic (SSURGO) database: data use information. US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center. Miscellaneous Publication Number 1527. (Lincoln, NE) Available at http://www.mass.gov/mgis/ssurgodb.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Interior (2001a) The National Fire Plan: a collaborative approach for reducing wildland fire risks to communities and the environment. Available at http://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/NFP/index.shtml/ [Verified April 2008]

US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Interior (2001b) A collaborative approach for reducing wildland fire risks to communities and the environment: 10-year comprehensive strategy. Available at http://www.westgov.org/wga/initiatives/fire/final_fire_rpt.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Interior (2004) The LANDFIRE Charter. Available at www.landfire.gov/downloadfile.php?file=LANDFIRE_Charter.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US Department of Interior (2003) National Park Service fire monitoring handbook. Available at http://www.nps.gov/fire/download/fir_eco_FEMHandbook2003.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US General Accounting Office (1999) Western national forests: a cohesive strategy is needed to address catastrophic wildland fire threats. GAO/RCED-99-65. US General Accounting Office. (Washington, DC) Available at http://www.gao.gov/archive/1999/rc99065.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US General Accounting Office (2001) The National Fire Plan, federal agencies are not organized to effectively and efficiently implement the plan. GAO-01-1022T. US General Accounting Office. (Washington, DC) Available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d011022t.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US General Accounting Office (2002a) Wildland fire management, improved planning will help agencies better identify firefighting preparedness needs. GAO-02-158. US General Accounting Office. (Washington, DC) Available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d02158.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US General Accounting Office (2002b) Severe wildland fires – leadership and accountability needed to reduce risks to communities and resources. GAO-02-259. US General Accounting Office. (Washington, DC) Available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d02259.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US General Accounting Office (2003a) Wildland fire management: additional actions required to better identify and prioritize lands needing fuels reduction. GAO-03-805. US General Accounting Office. (Washington, DC) Available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03805.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US General Accounting Office (2003b) Geospatial information technologies hold promise for wildland fire management, but challenges remain. GAO-03-1114T. US General Accounting Office. (Washington, DC) Available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d031114t.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US Geological Survey (2006a) The national elevation dataset. US Geological Survey, National Center for Earth Resources Science and Observation. (Sioux Falls, SD) Available at http://ned.usgs.gov/ [Verified April 2008]

US Geological Survey (2006b) Elevation derivatives for national applications. US Geological Survey, National Center for Earth Resources Science and Observation. (Sioux Falls, SD) Available at http://edna.usgs.gov/ [Verified April 2008]

US Geological Survey (2007) The GAP analysis program. US Geological Survey. (Reston, VA) Available at http://gapanalysis.nbii.gov/ [Verified April 2008]

US Government Accountability Office (2005) Wildland fire management: important progress has been made, but challenges remain to completing a cohesive strategy. GAO-05-147. US General Accounting Office. (Washington, DC) Available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d05147.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US Government Accountability Office (2006) Cohesive wildland fire strategy. GAO-06-671R. US General Accounting Office. (Washington, DC) Available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d06671r.pdf [Verified April 2008]

US Government Accountability Office (2007) Wildland fire management: better information and a systematic process could improve agencies’ approach to allocating fuel reduction funds and selecting projects. US General Accounting Office. (Washington, DC) Available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d071168.pdf [Verified April 2008]

USDA Forest Service (2007a) Forest inventory and analysis national program. USDA Forest Service. (Washington, DC) Available at http://www.fia.fs.fed.us [Verified April 2008]

USDA Forest Service (2007b) Natural resource information system: field sampled vegetation: common stand exam users guide, v1.8. Ecosystem management coordination. USDA Forest Service. (Washington, DC) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/emc/nris/ [Verified April 2008]

USDA Forest Service and US Department of Interior (2006a) Protecting people and natural resources: a cohesive fuels treatment strategy. Available at http://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/resources/documents/CFTS_03-03-06.pdf [Verified April 2008]

USDA Forest Service and US Department of Interior (2006b) Wildland Fire Decision Support System (WFDSS) Project. Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/wfsa/WFDSSBriefingPaperFinal.pdf [Verified April 2008]

van Wagner CEV (1993) Prediction of crown fire behavior in two stands of jack pine. Canadian Journal of Forest Research  23, 442–449.
Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | Zhu Z, Vogelmann J, Ohlen D, Kost J, Chen X, Tolk B (2006) Mapping existing vegetation composition and structure for the LANDFIRE Prototype Project. In ‘The LANDFIRE Prototype Project: Nationally Consistent and Locally Relevant Geospatial Data for Wildland Fire Management’. (Eds MG Rollins, CK Frame) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-175, pp. 197–215. (Fort Collins, CO) Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr175/rmrs_gtr175_197_215.pdf [Verified April 2008]