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  • Open Access

Timing the neutrino signal of a Galactic supernova

Rasmus S. L. Hansen, Manfred Lindner, and Oliver Scholer
Phys. Rev. D 101, 123018 – Published 16 June 2020
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  • INTRODUCTION
  • THE NEUTRINO SIGNAL
  • DETECTION
  • TIMING THE SIGNAL
  • APPLICATIONS
  • CONCLUSION
  • ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
  • APPENDICES
    • References

    Abstract

    We study several methods for timing the neutrino signal of a Galactic supernova (SN) for different detectors via Monte Carlo simulations. We find that, for the methods we studied, at a distance of 10 kpc both Hyper-Kamiokande and IceCube can reach precisions of ∼1  ms for the neutrino burst, while a potential IceCube Gen2 upgrade will reach submillisecond precision. In the case of a failed SN, we find that detectors such as SK and JUNO can reach precisions of ∼0.1  ms while HK could potentially reach a resolution of ∼0.01  ms so that the impact of the black hole formation process itself becomes relevant. Two possible applications for this are the triangulation of a (failed) SN as well as the possibility to constrain neutrino masses via a time-of-flight measurement using a potential gravitational wave signal as reference.

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    • Received 7 June 2019
    • Accepted 12 May 2020

    DOI:https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevD.101.123018

    Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article’s title, journal citation, and DOI. Funded by SCOAP3.

    Published by the American Physical Society

    Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)

    1. Research Areas
    Extrasolar neutrino astronomyNovae & supernovaeParticle astrophysics
    1. Physical Systems
    Neutrinos
    1. Techniques
    Neutrino detection
    Gravitation, Cosmology & AstrophysicsParticles & Fields

    Authors & Affiliations

    Rasmus S. L. Hansen1,2,*, Manfred Lindner1,†, and Oliver Scholer1,‡

    • 1Max-Planck-Institut für Kernphysik, Saupfercheckweg 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
    • 2Department of Physics and Astronomy, Aarhus University, Ny Munkegade 120, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark

    • *rasmus.lundkvist@nbi.ku.dk
    • †lindner@mpi-hd.mpg.de
    • ‡scholer@mpi-hd.mpg.de

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    Vol. 101, Iss. 12 — 15 June 2020

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    Images

    • Figure 1
      Figure 1

      Phases of emission in a typical CCSN taken from the s11.2 cooling model of Hüdepohl [19]. Note that ν¯e and νx are scaled up. One can clearly see the three different phases of emission, namely the large νe burst during the first ∼10  ms, the following accretion phase, and the cooling of the neutron star at the end up to ∼10  s.

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    • Figure 2
      Figure 2

      Mean event rates in HK (upper), SK, JUNO (left), and IC (right) using the ls180s12.0 simulation from Hüdepohl [20]. The shaded areas show the 1σ deviation. The blue dots in the upper panel show one MC realization in HK assuming normal ordering. Note that the rates for IC are given per bin, i.e., per 1.6384 ms. The black horizontal line in the lower right panel represents the constant background noise of 280 Hz per module in IC. A sample MC realization for IO as well as more details on the timing methods are displayed in Fig. 3.

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    • Figure 3
      Figure 3

      Visualization of the different methods in Sec. 4 for HK (Exponential Fit, First Bulk, Energy Threshold, and First IBD) for NO (left panel) and IO (right panel). The (light-)blue dots represent the total binned signal of one specific Monte Carlo realization, the red curve shows the fit resulting from Eq. (22), the green squares show the binned events that produce secondary e± with a kinetic energy Te>20  MeV, and the (light-)blue stars show the binned elastic scattering event rate. Therefore, the first green square shows the bin with the event that triggers the energy threshold method, while the first bin in which the blue dot and star do not match shows the bin in which the first IBD event is located. The gray area shows the 2.5 ms time period of the first bulk that was found. Note that the timing of the single events is taken to be the actual time of the event and not the time of the corresponding bin, thus obtaining sub-ms resolution.

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    • Figure 4
      Figure 4

      Mean elastic neutrino-electron scattering rates ±1σ in HK for NO (solid line) and IO (dashed line).

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    • Figure 5
      Figure 5

      Evolution of the mean energy of the detected neutrinos in SK/HK for the ls180s12.0 star. The features are found to be independent of the progenitors and the EOS of stars in the dataset used.

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    • Figure 6
      Figure 6

      Histograms showing the distribution of the timing variable for the different methods (light blue) around their respective mean t¯ for NO (left) and IO (right) with a Gaussian fit on top (dark blue) except for the BH Collapse method which is best described by a half Breit-Wigner fit (dark blue). The shaded area shows the 1σ standard deviation around the mean timing for each method. Except for the BH Collapse method, the timing variables of all other methods are well approximated by a Gaussian distribution. The different behavior for the BH method is due to the hard cutoff at the time of collapse. As an example, we show the timing distribution for the ls180s12.0 model and the BH ls220s40s7b2c model for the BH Collapse both in Hyper-Kamiokande. The normal ordering scenario is shown in the left half of the figure while the right half displays the inverted ordering scenario. For the BH Collapse method the timing was separated into 1  μs bins while all other methods were separated into bins of 200  μs. Note that the fits are only displayed for the purpose of comparison. They are not used in our determination of the timing resolution.

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    • Figure 7
      Figure 7

      Distance dependency of the timing resolution for four of the five methods studied to time the onset of the signal. The plot shows the different timing values for the ls180s12.0 model between 1 and 20 kpc. One can see that for close supernovae below 5–7 kpc, the 20 MeV energy threshold is no longer sufficient and a larger threshold of 25 MeV is necessary. The opposite is true for the First Bulk method, which is limited by low statistics for large distances.

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    • Figure 8
      Figure 8

      Visualization of the timing performance, i.e., average and standard deviation for each detector, method (except BH), and supernova model used assuming normal mass ordering. The plot shows the average timing compared to the core bounce at t=0 as well as the 1σ deviation band.

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    • Figure 9
      Figure 9

      Visualization of the timing performance, i.e., average and standard deviation for each detector, method (except BH), and supernova model used assuming inverted mass ordering. The plot shows the average timing compared to the core bounce at t=0 as well as the 1σ deviation band.

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