Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that states that the best action is the one that maximizes ut... more Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that states that the best action is the one that maximizes utility, which is usually defined as that which produces the greatest well-being of the greatest number of people. Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, who described utility as the sum of all pleasure that results from an action, minus the suffering of anyone involved in the action. Utilitarianism is a version of consequentialism, which states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong. Unlike other forms of consequentialism, such as egoism and altruism, utilitarianism considers the interests of all beings equally. Intuitively speaking, utilitarianism appears to be an extremely attractive philosophy. It offers a simplicity that many other philosophical approaches lack and in particular cuts through the mish mash of moral rules favoured by deontological thinkers. It is reconcilable with the majoritarianism favoured by democratic systems of government. Moreover, utilitarianism offers an obvious answer to the question of why we should act in a certain way in the absence of a religious justification. Despite this, the theory has attracted copious criticism. On a practical level, utilitarianism has been derided as unworkable, and even absurd. The critique of utilitarianism forms a crucial subplot in the complex analysis of social justice that John Rawls develops in his first book, 'A Theory of Justice'. Rawls position is deeply against utilitarianism, as this philosophy is accepting to give up individual interests for majority's ones. The utilitarian assumption that individual interest might be given up for society, is criticized even if the sacrifice of someone's interest might lead to greater efficiency. For Rawls it is more important to ensure justice before efficiency. It is claimed to be wrong if the majority would get an advantage but the one who has to take the sacrifice is the worst of, and this is unjust. Further, another critical point that Rawls gives is the one concerning distributive justice, utilitarianism tries to maximize the social outcome as a whole, what it still fails to take into account is the distribution of that utility. What Rawls criticized in utilitarianism appears to be right for general principles of social welfare. Utilitarianism has to be awarded with the innovation to apply rationality to moral philosophy although it forgets the distribution of wealth problem.
In contemporary political philosophy, a lot of discussion surrounds the 'equality of what?' debat... more In contemporary political philosophy, a lot of discussion surrounds the 'equality of what?' debate. Any attempt to apply the principle of equality between individuals must first come to terms with what exactly we must be concerned to equalize. In addition, the 'what' of equality has a distributional aspect to it i.e., distributional equality. Although the final word on the debate on 'equality of what?' is yet to be said, scholars generally identify three metrics of equality: welfare, resources, and capabilities.
Adam Swift argues " Equality of opportunity is the acceptable face of equality, commanding suppor... more Adam Swift argues " Equality of opportunity is the acceptable face of equality, commanding support across the political spectrum ". The notion of equality of opportunity follows from the idea of formal equality and can be traced even in the writings of Plato. The concept of formal equality does not address the opportunities and chances available to the individual. Equality of opportunity is concerned with initial conditions available. According to Rawls formal equality of opportunity is not enough. It is important to incorporate intelligence and social position as part of the distributive criteria. The notion of Equality of opportunity does not compensate inequalities that arise due to factors that are arbitrary from moral point of view. Social economic circumstances and special talents of individuals are arbitrary from the moral point of view because they are the result of brute luck. John Rawls' second principle allows that " Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged b) Attached to offices and position open to all under condition of fair equality of opportunity to all. The Second principle, as Anthony Simon Laden suggests, consists of three parts: fair equality of opportunity, a just saving principle and the requirement that social and economic inequalities be to the advantage of least well of. The 2nd principle of Rawls is known as 'difference principle'. Fair equality of opportunity is different from formal equality of opportunity which is the basic idea of 'liberalism. In liberal societies, opportunities are based on one's talents. The concept of 'careers open to talents' is famous. It means opportunities are there in the society, and those who are talented will grab the opportunities on the basis of their talent. It facilitates the condition of formal equality. Rawls intervenes at this point and argues that the notion of 'talent' is contextual. Those who belong to upper class section of society, they must have greater accesses to quality education and that ways they will acquire greater talent in comparison to those students who belong to lower class section of society. Thus in a society where there is a great deal of economic inequality, mere formal equality of opportunity will probably result in those with privileged backgrounds occupying most of the power and privilege in the society. Rawls's fair equality of opportunity overcomes the perpetuation of privilege, by requiring that those who are at the same label of talent and have the same willingness to use them should have the same prospects of success regardless of their initial place in social system. Fair equality of opportunity thus rejects the advantages of the class from one to next generation. Thus fair equality of opportunity requires some background condition.
Since the end of the Cold War, a number of NGOs have been established in different parts of the w... more Since the end of the Cold War, a number of NGOs have been established in different parts of the world. We have seen the rise of popular NGOs all over the world, in resistance to the forces of imperialism and capitalism. The current forms and scope of worldwide resistance to globalization policies and processes is one of the most important political developments of the last decade. The new political economy of neoliberal globalisation encourages a great diversity of these organisations and creates both the objective need and the material conditions for these organisations to unify at a global level.
Freedom of movement is a fundamental human right and is central to the functioning of the interna... more Freedom of movement is a fundamental human right and is central to the functioning of the international refugee protection regime. Every day, thousands of people embark on dangerous journeys to find a better life. Some are refugees fleeing conflict zones such as Syria; many others are in search of education for their children, jobs, better opportunities and freedom. All have aspirations and hopes for a better future. The problem of the refugees of the world and that of internally displaced people is one of the most complicated issues before the world community today. A lot of discussions are taking place at the United Nations as it continues its search for more effective ways to protect and assist these particularly vulnerable groups. Migration Migration is the movement of people from one place to another. The United Nations defines a migrant as 'an individual who has resided in a foreign country for more than one year irrespective of the causes, voluntary or involuntary, and the means, regular or irregular, used to migrate'. The International Organisation of Migration estimates that 232 million people become international migrants in a year and another 740 million move within their own countries. There are many reasons for people to become migrants but those who move to work or seek a better life are generally termed as economic migrants. There are also other categories of migrants such as international students, those who move for family reasons and those who migrate because they are fleeing war and persecution. Countries deal with migrants under their own immigration laws and processes and with refugees through norms for refugee protection and asylum that are defined in both national legislation and international law. The role of UNHCR is to help countries deal with their asylum and refugee protection responsibilities. Migration can be international or intra-national. Intra-national migration refers to a change of residence within national boundaries, such as between states, provinces, cities, or municipalities. International migration refers to change of residence over national boundaries. International migrants are further classified as legal immigrants, illegal immigrants, and refugees. Legal immigrants are those who moved with the legal permission of the receiver nation, illegal immigrants are those who moved without legal permission, and refugees are those who crossed an international boundary to escape persecution.
Since the end of the Cold War, a number of resistance movements have taken place in different par... more Since the end of the Cold War, a number of resistance movements have taken place in different parts of the world. We have seen the rise of popular movements all over the world, in resistance to the forces of imperialism and capitalism. The current forms and scope of worldwide resistance to globalization policies and processes is one of the most important political developments of the last decade. The new political economy of neoliberal globalisation encourages a great diversity of movements and creates both the objective need and the material conditions for these movements to unify at a global level. Resisting Globalisation Resistance to globalisation refers to the series of struggles and actions of social groups and individuals in response to the consequences of neoliberal reforms and its effects. The core values of the new global social movements of resistance include non-violent struggle, democratic practices, social justice, secularism, peace and equality. The construction of alternatives to neo-liberalism is also a form of resistance to globalisation. Alternatives are seen in the emergence of new form of flexible organisation for resistance, such as traassatioal adoay etorks like Our World Is Not for Salee OWINSS against neo-liberal agenda in the WTO. While scholars and others have shown a tremendous interest in theorizing globalization throughout the 1990s and up to the present, whereas there is a healthy body of literature describing new social movements since the 1980s. Some scholars have returned to the work of Karl Polanyi (1944), finding in his idea a framework for understanding contemporary resistance movements. A promising theory of globalization and resistance is also offered by Michael Hardt aad AAtooio Negri's Empire (2000) and Multitude (2004).
On 14-15 August 1947, not one but two nation-states came into existence – India and Pakistan. Thi... more On 14-15 August 1947, not one but two nation-states came into existence – India and Pakistan. This was a result of 'partition', the division of British India into India and Pakistan. But behind all the festivities and political rhetoric, however there was a distinct sense of national anguish. Even as fire-crackers were being exploded in part of the capital to herald the beginning of the new age, old tensions and hatred were manifesting themselves. The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphere of hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan that plagues their relationship to the present. Process of partition
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that states that the best action is the one that maximizes ut... more Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that states that the best action is the one that maximizes utility, which is usually defined as that which produces the greatest well-being of the greatest number of people. Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, who described utility as the sum of all pleasure that results from an action, minus the suffering of anyone involved in the action. Utilitarianism is a version of consequentialism, which states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong. Unlike other forms of consequentialism, such as egoism and altruism, utilitarianism considers the interests of all beings equally. Intuitively speaking, utilitarianism appears to be an extremely attractive philosophy. It offers a simplicity that many other philosophical approaches lack and in particular cuts through the mish mash of moral rules favoured by deontological thinkers. It is reconcilable with the majoritarianism favoured by democratic systems of government. Moreover, utilitarianism offers an obvious answer to the question of why we should act in a certain way in the absence of a religious justification. Despite this, the theory has attracted copious criticism. On a practical level, utilitarianism has been derided as unworkable, and even absurd. The critique of utilitarianism forms a crucial subplot in the complex analysis of social justice that John Rawls develops in his first book, 'A Theory of Justice'. Rawls position is deeply against utilitarianism, as this philosophy is accepting to give up individual interests for majority's ones. The utilitarian assumption that individual interest might be given up for society, is criticized even if the sacrifice of someone's interest might lead to greater efficiency. For Rawls it is more important to ensure justice before efficiency. It is claimed to be wrong if the majority would get an advantage but the one who has to take the sacrifice is the worst of, and this is unjust. Further, another critical point that Rawls gives is the one concerning distributive justice, utilitarianism tries to maximize the social outcome as a whole, what it still fails to take into account is the distribution of that utility. What Rawls criticized in utilitarianism appears to be right for general principles of social welfare. Utilitarianism has to be awarded with the innovation to apply rationality to moral philosophy although it forgets the distribution of wealth problem.
In contemporary political philosophy, a lot of discussion surrounds the 'equality of what?' debat... more In contemporary political philosophy, a lot of discussion surrounds the 'equality of what?' debate. Any attempt to apply the principle of equality between individuals must first come to terms with what exactly we must be concerned to equalize. In addition, the 'what' of equality has a distributional aspect to it i.e., distributional equality. Although the final word on the debate on 'equality of what?' is yet to be said, scholars generally identify three metrics of equality: welfare, resources, and capabilities.
Adam Swift argues " Equality of opportunity is the acceptable face of equality, commanding suppor... more Adam Swift argues " Equality of opportunity is the acceptable face of equality, commanding support across the political spectrum ". The notion of equality of opportunity follows from the idea of formal equality and can be traced even in the writings of Plato. The concept of formal equality does not address the opportunities and chances available to the individual. Equality of opportunity is concerned with initial conditions available. According to Rawls formal equality of opportunity is not enough. It is important to incorporate intelligence and social position as part of the distributive criteria. The notion of Equality of opportunity does not compensate inequalities that arise due to factors that are arbitrary from moral point of view. Social economic circumstances and special talents of individuals are arbitrary from the moral point of view because they are the result of brute luck. John Rawls' second principle allows that " Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged b) Attached to offices and position open to all under condition of fair equality of opportunity to all. The Second principle, as Anthony Simon Laden suggests, consists of three parts: fair equality of opportunity, a just saving principle and the requirement that social and economic inequalities be to the advantage of least well of. The 2nd principle of Rawls is known as 'difference principle'. Fair equality of opportunity is different from formal equality of opportunity which is the basic idea of 'liberalism. In liberal societies, opportunities are based on one's talents. The concept of 'careers open to talents' is famous. It means opportunities are there in the society, and those who are talented will grab the opportunities on the basis of their talent. It facilitates the condition of formal equality. Rawls intervenes at this point and argues that the notion of 'talent' is contextual. Those who belong to upper class section of society, they must have greater accesses to quality education and that ways they will acquire greater talent in comparison to those students who belong to lower class section of society. Thus in a society where there is a great deal of economic inequality, mere formal equality of opportunity will probably result in those with privileged backgrounds occupying most of the power and privilege in the society. Rawls's fair equality of opportunity overcomes the perpetuation of privilege, by requiring that those who are at the same label of talent and have the same willingness to use them should have the same prospects of success regardless of their initial place in social system. Fair equality of opportunity thus rejects the advantages of the class from one to next generation. Thus fair equality of opportunity requires some background condition.
Since the end of the Cold War, a number of NGOs have been established in different parts of the w... more Since the end of the Cold War, a number of NGOs have been established in different parts of the world. We have seen the rise of popular NGOs all over the world, in resistance to the forces of imperialism and capitalism. The current forms and scope of worldwide resistance to globalization policies and processes is one of the most important political developments of the last decade. The new political economy of neoliberal globalisation encourages a great diversity of these organisations and creates both the objective need and the material conditions for these organisations to unify at a global level.
Freedom of movement is a fundamental human right and is central to the functioning of the interna... more Freedom of movement is a fundamental human right and is central to the functioning of the international refugee protection regime. Every day, thousands of people embark on dangerous journeys to find a better life. Some are refugees fleeing conflict zones such as Syria; many others are in search of education for their children, jobs, better opportunities and freedom. All have aspirations and hopes for a better future. The problem of the refugees of the world and that of internally displaced people is one of the most complicated issues before the world community today. A lot of discussions are taking place at the United Nations as it continues its search for more effective ways to protect and assist these particularly vulnerable groups. Migration Migration is the movement of people from one place to another. The United Nations defines a migrant as 'an individual who has resided in a foreign country for more than one year irrespective of the causes, voluntary or involuntary, and the means, regular or irregular, used to migrate'. The International Organisation of Migration estimates that 232 million people become international migrants in a year and another 740 million move within their own countries. There are many reasons for people to become migrants but those who move to work or seek a better life are generally termed as economic migrants. There are also other categories of migrants such as international students, those who move for family reasons and those who migrate because they are fleeing war and persecution. Countries deal with migrants under their own immigration laws and processes and with refugees through norms for refugee protection and asylum that are defined in both national legislation and international law. The role of UNHCR is to help countries deal with their asylum and refugee protection responsibilities. Migration can be international or intra-national. Intra-national migration refers to a change of residence within national boundaries, such as between states, provinces, cities, or municipalities. International migration refers to change of residence over national boundaries. International migrants are further classified as legal immigrants, illegal immigrants, and refugees. Legal immigrants are those who moved with the legal permission of the receiver nation, illegal immigrants are those who moved without legal permission, and refugees are those who crossed an international boundary to escape persecution.
Since the end of the Cold War, a number of resistance movements have taken place in different par... more Since the end of the Cold War, a number of resistance movements have taken place in different parts of the world. We have seen the rise of popular movements all over the world, in resistance to the forces of imperialism and capitalism. The current forms and scope of worldwide resistance to globalization policies and processes is one of the most important political developments of the last decade. The new political economy of neoliberal globalisation encourages a great diversity of movements and creates both the objective need and the material conditions for these movements to unify at a global level. Resisting Globalisation Resistance to globalisation refers to the series of struggles and actions of social groups and individuals in response to the consequences of neoliberal reforms and its effects. The core values of the new global social movements of resistance include non-violent struggle, democratic practices, social justice, secularism, peace and equality. The construction of alternatives to neo-liberalism is also a form of resistance to globalisation. Alternatives are seen in the emergence of new form of flexible organisation for resistance, such as traassatioal adoay etorks like Our World Is Not for Salee OWINSS against neo-liberal agenda in the WTO. While scholars and others have shown a tremendous interest in theorizing globalization throughout the 1990s and up to the present, whereas there is a healthy body of literature describing new social movements since the 1980s. Some scholars have returned to the work of Karl Polanyi (1944), finding in his idea a framework for understanding contemporary resistance movements. A promising theory of globalization and resistance is also offered by Michael Hardt aad AAtooio Negri's Empire (2000) and Multitude (2004).
On 14-15 August 1947, not one but two nation-states came into existence – India and Pakistan. Thi... more On 14-15 August 1947, not one but two nation-states came into existence – India and Pakistan. This was a result of 'partition', the division of British India into India and Pakistan. But behind all the festivities and political rhetoric, however there was a distinct sense of national anguish. Even as fire-crackers were being exploded in part of the capital to herald the beginning of the new age, old tensions and hatred were manifesting themselves. The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphere of hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan that plagues their relationship to the present. Process of partition
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