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The word ''altruism'' was popularized (and possibly coined) by the French philosopher [[Auguste Comte]] in French, as {{lang|fr|altruisme}}, for an [[antonym]] of [[egoism]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web |title=altruism (n .) |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=altruism |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Douglas Harper |access-date=27 May 2021}}
|2={{cite book |last=Teske |first=Nathan |title=Political Activists in America: The Identity Construction Model of Political Participation |date=2009|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |location=University Park, Pa. |isbn=9780271035468978-0-271-03546-8|page=101|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7B38I2UEPa0C}}
}}</ref> He derived it from the Italian {{lang|it|altrui}}, which in turn was derived from Latin {{lang|la|alteri}}, meaning "[[alterity|other people]]" or "somebody else".<ref>{{cite book|last=Ciciloni|first=Ferdinando|title=A Grammar of the Italian Language|date=1825|publisher=John Murray|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog/page/n81 64]|url=https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog}}</ref>
 
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{{Main|Altruism (biology)|Evolution of morality|Evolutionary ethics}}
[[File:Manner of Francis Wheatley, Giving alms to beggar children.jpg|thumb|upright|Giving alms to beggar children]]
In the Science of [[ethology]] (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of [[Sociocultural evolution|social evolution]], altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor.<ref name="Bell2008">{{cite book| last = Bell| first = Graham| title = Selection: the mechanism of evolution| url = https://archive.org/details/selectionmechani00bell_664| url-access = limited| year = 2008| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford| isbn = 978-0-19-856972-5| pages = [https://archive.org/details/selectionmechani00bell_664/page/n381 367]–368 }}</ref> In [[evolutionary psychology]] this term may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as [[Charity (practice)|charity]], [[emergency aid]], help to coalition partners, [[Gratuity|tipping]], [[courtship]] gifts, production of [[Public good (economics)|public good]]s, and [[environmentalism]].<ref name="AEP1">{{Cite book | first=Pat|last=Barcaly| chapter=The evolution of charitable behaviour and the power of reputation|editor-last1 = Roberts | editor-first1 = S. Craig | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 9780199586073978-0-19-958607-3 }}</ref>
 
Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were {{clarify|text=accelerated|reason=what does it mean for a theory to accelerate? How does a need accelerate a theory?|date=July 2023}} by the need to produce ideas compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and [[evolutionary game theory]]: a mathematical model and analysis of behavioral strategies.
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[[File:FEMA - 15337 - Photograph by Andrea Booher taken on 09-10-2005 in Texas.jpg|thumb|Volunteers assist Hurricane victims at the [[Houston Astrodome]], following Hurricane Katrina.]]
:Both indirect reciprocity and costly signaling depend on reputation value and tend to make similar predictions. One is that people will be more helpful when they know that their helping behavior will be communicated to people they will interact with later, publicly announced, discussed, or observed by someone else. This has been documented in many studies. The effect is sensitive to subtle cues, such as people being more helpful when there were stylized eyespots instead of a logo on a computer screen. {{dubious|reason=failed to replicate: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8494318/|date=July 2023}} Weak reputational cues such as eyespots may become unimportant if there are stronger cues present and may lose their effect with continued exposure unless reinforced with real reputational effects.<ref name=AEP1/> Public displays such as public weeping for dead celebrities and participation in demonstrations may be influenced by a desire to be seen as generous. People who know that they are publicly monitored sometimes even wastefully donate the money they know is not needed by the recipient because of reputational concerns.<ref name="AEP2">{{Cite book | last1=Iredal|first1=Wendy | last2=van Vugt|first2=Mark |chapter=Altruism as showing off: a signaling perspective on promoting green behavior and acts of kindness | editor1-last = Roberts | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | editor1-first = S. Craig | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 9780199586073978-0-19-958607-3 }}</ref>
 
:Typically, women find altruistic men to be attractive partners. When women look for a long-term partner, altruism may be a trait they prefer as it may indicate that the prospective partner is also willing to [[Sharing|share]] resources with her and her children. Men perform charitable acts in the early stages of a romantic relationship or simply when in the presence of an attractive woman. While both sexes state that kindness is the most preferable trait in a partner, there is some evidence that men place less value on this than women and that women may not be more altruistic in the presence of an attractive man. Men may even avoid altruistic women in short-term relationships, which may be because they expect less success.<ref name=AEP1/><ref name=AEP2/>
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The benefits for the altruist may be increased, and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than competitors, and to members in-groups than to members of out-groups.<ref name=AEP1/>
 
The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]], a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoeba]]e until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Hudson |firstfirst1=Richard Ellis |last2=Aukema |first2=Juliann Eve |last3=Rispe |first3=Claude |last4=Roze |first4=Denis |date=July 2002 |title=Altruism, cheating, and anticheater adaptations in cellular slime molds |url=https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02683365/file/2002_Hudson%20et%20al._Am%20Nat_1.pdf |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=160 |issue=1 |pages=31–43 |doi=10.1086/340613 |issn=1537-5323 |pmid=18707497 |access-date=1 February 2024}}</ref>
 
Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1207/s15327965pli1701_01 |last1=Brown |first1=S.L. |last2=Brown |first2=R.M. |year=2006 |title=Selective investment theory: Recasting the functional significance of close relationships |url=http://icos.groups.si.umich.edu/Brown-Stephanie.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714230521/http://icos.groups.si.umich.edu/Brown-Stephanie.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 July 2014 |journal=Psychological Inquiry |volume=17 |pages=1–29 |s2cid=144718661 }}</ref>
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Bill Harbaugh, a [[University of Oregon]] economist, in an fMRI scanner test conducted with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions as Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: "egoists" and "altruists". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered "egoists" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in charity, such as a person's environment and values.<ref name="neurons"/>
 
A recent meta-analysis of fMRI studies conducted by Shawn Rhoads, Jo Cutler, and Abigail Marsh analyzed the results of prior studies of generosity in which participants could freely choose to give or not give resources to someone else.<ref>{{Cite webjournal |last=Rhoads |first=S. A. |date=2021 |title=A feature-based network analysis and fMRI meta-analysis reveal three distinct types of prosocial decisions |url=https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/16/12/1214/6308359 |access-date=2023-12-30 |websitejournal=academicSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience|volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=1214–1233 |doi=10.oup.com1093/scan/nsab079 |pmid=34160604 |pmc=8717062 }}</ref> The results of this study confirmed that altruism is supported by distinct mechanisms from giving motivated by reciprocity or by fairness. This study also confirmed that the right ventral striatum is recruited during altruistic giving, as well as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, bilateral [[anterior cingulate cortex]], and bilateral anterior [[Insular cortex|insula]], which are regions previously implicated in [[empathy]].
 
[[Abigail Marsh]] has conducted studies of real-world altruists that have also identified an important role for the [[amygdala]] in human altruism. In real-world altruists, such as people who have donated kidneys to strangers, the amygdala is larger than in typical adults. Altruists' amygdalas are also more responsive than those of typical adults to the sight of others' distress, which is thought to reflect an empathic response to distress.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |last2=Stoycos |first2=Sarah A. |last3=Brethel-Haurwitz |first3=Kristin M. |last4=Robinson |first4=Paul |last5=VanMeter |first5=John W. |last6=Cardinale |first6=Elise M. |date=2014-10-21 |title=Neural and cognitive characteristics of extraordinary altruists |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=42 |pages=15036–15041 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1408440111 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4210306 |pmid=25225374|bibcode=2014PNAS..11115036M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brethel-Haurwitz |first1=Kristin M. |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Cardinale |first3=Elise M. |last4=Stoianova |first4=Maria |last5=Stoycos |first5=Sarah A. |last6=Lozier |first6=Leah M. |last7=VanMeter |first7=John W. |last8=Marsh |first8=Abigail A. |date=2017-10-25 |title=Amygdala–midbrain connectivity indicates a role for the mammalian parental care system in human altruism |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=284 |issue=1865 |pages=20171731 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.1731 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=5666102 |pmid=29070724}}</ref> This structure may also be involved in altruistic choices due to its role in encoding the value of outcomes for others.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Berluti |first3=Kathryn |last4=Ploe |first4=Montana L |last5=Elizabeth |first5=Hannah S |last6=Amormino |first6=Paige |last7=Li |first7=Joanna L |last8=Dutton |first8=Mary Ann |last9=VanMeter |first9=Ashley Skye |last10=Marsh |first10=Abigail A |date=2023-06-13 |title=Neural responses underlying extraordinary altruists' generosity for socially distant others |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad199 |journal=PNAS Nexus |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=pgad199 |doi=10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad199 |issn=2752-6542 |pmc=10321390 |pmid=37416875}}</ref> This is consistent with the findings of research in non-human animals, which has identified neurons within the amygdala that specifically encode the value of others' outcomes, activity in which appears to drive altruistic choices in monkeys.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dal Monte |first1=Olga |last2=Chu |first2=Cheng C. J. |last3=Fagan |first3=Nicholas A. |last4=Chang |first4=Steve W. C. |date=April 2020 |title=Specialized medial prefrontal–amygdala coordination in other-regarding decision preference |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-020-0593-y |journal=Nature Neuroscience |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=565–574 |doi=10.1038/s41593-020-0593-y |pmid=32094970 |pmc=7131896 |issn=1546-1726|hdl=2318/1730693 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Putnam |first=P. T. |date=2023 |title=Dissociation of vicarious and experienced rewards by coupling frequency within the same neural pathway |url=https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(23)00393-8 |journal=Neuron |volume=111 |issue=16 |pages=2513–2522|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2023.05.020 |pmid=37348507 |pmc=10527039 |pmc-embargo-date=August 16, 2024 }}</ref>
 
====Psychology====
The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines ''psychological altruism'' as "a motivational state to increase another's welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism'', which refers to the motivation to increase one's welfare.<ref name="encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia|article=Altruism|encyclopedia = International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences|editor-first= William A. Jr. |editor-last = Darity|edition= 2nd |volume = 1|location = Detroit|publisher = Macmillan Reference USA|date= 2008|pages = 87–88}}</ref> In keeping with this, research in real-world altruists, including altruistic kidney donors, bone marrow donors, humanitarian aid workers, and [[Hero|heroic]] rescuers findings that these altruists are primarily distinguished from other adults by unselfish traits and decision-making patterns. This suggests that human altruism reflects genuinely high valuation of others' outcomes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A. |last2=Vekaria |first2=Kruti M. |last3=O’Connell |first3=Katherine |last4=Elizabeth |first4=Hannah S. |last5=Rand |first5=David G. |last6=Kozak Williams |first6=Megan N. |last7=Marsh |first7=Abigail A. |date=2023-03-31 |title=Unselfish traits and social decision-making patterns characterize six populations of real-world extraordinary altruists |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1807 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-37283-5 |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free |pmid=37002205 |pmc=10066349 }}</ref>
 
There has been some debate on whether humans are capable of psychological altruism.<ref name="batson3">{{cite book|last=Batson|first=C.|year=2011|title=Altruism in humans|location=New York, N.Y. U.S.|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors.<ref name="prosocial">{{cite book|last=Batson|first= C. Daniel |date=2012|chapter = A history of prosocial behavior research |editor1-first = Arie W.|editor1-last= Kruglanski|editor2-link=Wolfgang Stroebe|editor2-first=Wolfgang|editor2-last = Stroebe|title = Handbook of the history of social psychology |pages = 243–264|location= New York, NY |publisher = Psychology Press|isbn =9781848728684978-1-84872-868-4 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MOlUSV2koMcC&pg=PA242}}</ref> However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is difficult to prove. The [[social exchange theory]] postulates that altruism only exists when the benefits outweigh the costs to the self.<ref name="noaltruism">{{cite journal | last1 = Maner | first1 = J. K. | last2 = Luce | first2 = C. L. | last3 = Neuberg | first3 = S. L. | last4 = Cialdini | first4 = R. B. | last5 = Brown | first5 = S. | last6 = Sagarin | first6 = B. J. | year = 2002 | title = The effects of perspective taking on motivations for helping: Still no evidence for altruism | url = https://www.academia.edu/14932530| journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 28 | issue = 11| pages = 1601–1610 | doi = 10.1177/014616702237586 | s2cid = 146125891 }}</ref>
 
[[Daniel Batson]], a psychologist, examined this question and argued against the social exchange theory. He identified four significant motives: to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle ([[principlism]]). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that [[empathy]]-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless.<ref name="baston2">{{cite book|last1=Batson|first1= C. Daniel|last2= Ahmad|first2= Nadia|last3= Stocks|first3= E. L. |date = 2011|chapter = Four forms of prosocial motivation: Egoism, altruism, collectivism, and principlism|editor-first = David|editor-last =Dunning|title = Social motivation |pages = 103–126|location= New York, NY |publisher = Psychology Press|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gOB4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|isbn = 9781136847202978-1-136-84720-2}}</ref> The ''[[empathy-altruism]] hypothesis'' states that psychological altruism exists and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with personal distress, which compels people to reduce their unpleasant emotions and increase their positive ones by helping someone in need. Empathy is thus not selfless since altruism works either as a way to avoid those negative, unpleasant feelings and have positive, pleasant feelings when triggered by others' need for help or as a way to gain social reward or avoid social punishment by helping. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid allowing it unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering.<ref name="encyclopedia"/>
 
Helping behavior is seen in humans from about two years old when a toddler can understand subtle emotional cues.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Svetlova|first1=M.|last2=Nichols|first2=S. R. |last3= Brownell|first3=C. A.|year=2010|title=Toddlers prosocial behavior: From instrumental to empathic to altruistic helping|journal=Child Development |volume=81|issue=6|pages=1814–1827|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01512.x|pmid=21077866|pmc=3088085}}</ref>
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The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''.
 
Examples include [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[Occupational burnout|burnout]] seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/pathological-altruism-9780199738571?cc=us&lang=en&|title=Pathological Altruism|date=19 December 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199738571978-0-19-973857-1}}</ref>
 
===Sociology===
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[[Effective altruism]] is a [[philosophy]] and [[social movement]] that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=MacAskill|first1=William|title=Effective Altruism: Introduction|journal=Essays in Philosophy|date= 31 January 2017|volume=18|issue=1|page=2|doi=10.7710/1526-0569.1580|language=en|issn=1526-0569|url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:2af97b37-be3f-4b27-a28d-c23bc6e716dd|doi-access=free}}</ref> Effective altruism encourages individuals to consider all causes and actions and to act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, based upon their values.<ref name="vox">{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/4/24/8457895/givewell-open-philanthropy-charity|title = You have $8 billion. You want to do as much good as possible. What do you do?|last = Matthews|first = Dylan|author-link = Dylan Matthews|date = 24 April 2015|access-date = 27 April 2015|website = [[Vox (website)|Vox]]}}</ref> It is the broad, evidence-based, and cause-neutral approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional altruism or [[Charity (practice)|charity]].<ref name="bcg">{{cite web|last1=Bennett|first1=Nicole|last2=Carter|first2=Ashley|last3=Resney|first3=Romney|last4=Woods|first4=Wendy|title=How Tech Entrepreneurs Are Disrupting Philanthropy|url=https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/articles/innovation-strategy-how-tech-entrepreneurs-are-disrupting-philanthropy/|website=BCG Perspectives|publisher=Boston Consulting Group|access-date= 11 March 2017}}</ref> Effective altruism is part of the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]].
 
While a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the [[nonprofit sector]], the philosophy of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects, companies, and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives, help people, or otherwise have the biggest benefit.<ref name="doing-good-better">{{cite book|last1=MacAskill|first1=William|title=Doing Good Better|date=2015|publisher=Avery|isbn=978-15924091051-59240-910-5}}</ref> People associated with the movement include philosopher [[Peter Singer]],<ref name="blog.ted.com">{{cite web|last1=Walters|first1=Helen|title=The why and how of effective altruism: Peter Singer's talk visualized|url=http://blog.ted.com/why-how-effective-altruism-peter-singer-visualized/|website=TED Blog|date=19 September 2013}}</ref> Facebook co founder [[Dustin Moskovitz]],<ref name="Washington Post on Dustin Moskovitz and Cari Tuna">{{cite news | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/billionaire-couple-give-plenty-to-charity-but-they-do-quite-a-bit-of-homework/2014/12/26/19fae34c-86d6-11e4-b9b7-b8632ae73d25_story.html | title=Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy | date=26 December 2014 | agency=The Washington Post}}</ref> [[Cari Tuna]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.insidephilanthropy.com/tech-philanthropy/2013/9/12/meet-cari-tuna-the-woman-giving-away-dustin-moskovitzs-faceb.html|title=Meet Cari Tuna, the Woman Giving Away Dustin Moskovitz's Facebook Fortune|first=Favid|last=Callahan|work=Inside Philanthropy|date=12 September 2013|access-date=1 March 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]-based researchers [[William MacAskill]]<ref name="The Atlantic article The Greatest Good">{{cite news|last1=Thompson|first1=Derek|title=The Greatest Good|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/06/what-is-the-greatest-good/395768/#b06g25t20w15|work=The Atlantic|date=15 June 2015}}</ref> and [[Toby Ord]],<ref name="Peter Singer The Most Good You Can Do">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NBWWX4ViD3E|website=YouTube|title=Peter Singer: "The Most Good You Can Do" &#124; Talks at Google}}</ref> and professional poker player [[Liv Boeree]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite web|url=https://www.pokerstrategy.com/news/world-of-poker/Liv-Boeree-on-Effective-Altruism_100487/|title=News: Liv Boeree on Effective Altruism|website=www.pokerstrategy.com|access-date=11 April 2017}}
|2={{Cite web|url=http://www.livboeree.com/effective-altruism/|title=Effective Altruism {{!}} Liv Boeree|website=www.livboeree.com|language=en-GB|access-date=11 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411220914/http://www.livboeree.com/effective-altruism/|archive-date=11 April 2017|url-status=dead}}
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== Extreme Altruism ==
Extreme altruism also known as costly altruism, extraordinary altruism, or heroic behaviours (shall be distinguished from [[Hero|heroism]]), refers to selfless acts directed to a stranger which significantly exceed the normal altruistic behaviours, often involving risks or great cost to the altruists themselves.<ref name=":0" /> Since acts of extreme altruism are often directed towards strangers, many commonly accepted models of simple altruism appear inadequate in explaining this phenomenon.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=de Waal |first=Frans B.M. |date=2008-01-01 |title=Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=279–300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 |pmid=17550343 |issn=0066-4308}}</ref>
 
One of the initial concepts was introduced by Wilson in 1976, which he referred to as “hard-core” altruism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wilson |first=John P. |date=December 1976-12 |title=Motivation, modeling, and altruism: A Person × Situation analysis. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.34.6.1078 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=1078–1086 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.34.6.1078 |issn=1939-1315}}</ref> This form is characterised by impulsive actions directed towards others, typically a stranger and lacking incentives for reward. Since then, several papers have mentioned the possibility of such altruism.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Piliavin |firstfirst1=Jane Allyn |last2=Charng |first2=Hong-Wen |date=1990 |title=Altruism: A Review of Recent Theory and Research |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2083262 |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=16 |pages=27–65 |doi=10.1146/annurev.so.16.080190.000331 |jstor=2083262 |issn=0360-0572}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Krebs |first=Dennis L. |date=1991 |title=Altruism and Egoism: A False Dichotomy? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1449250 |journal=Psychological Inquiry |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=137–139 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli0202_9 |jstor=1449250 |issn=1047-840X}}</ref>
 
The current slow progress in the field is due to general ethical guidelines that restrict exposing research participants to costly or risky decisions.<ref name=":2" /> Consequently, much research has based their studies on living organ donations and the actions of [[Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Hero medal Recipients]], actions which involve high risk, high cost, and are of infrequent occurrences.<ref name=":2" /> A typical example of extreme altruism would be non-directed kidney donation - a living person donating one of their kidneys to a stranger without any benefits or knowing the recipient.
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* Norms
 
In 1970, Schwartz hypothesised that extreme altruism is positively related to a person’s moral norms and is not influenced by the cost associated with the action.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Rusch |first=Hannes |date=2022 |title=Heroic behavior: A review of the literature on high-stakes altruism in the wild |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352250X21001330 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |language=en |volume=43 |pages=238–243 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.024|pmid=34454246 }}</ref> This hypothesis was supported in the same study examining bone marrow donors. Schwartz discovered that individuals with strong personal norms and those who attribute more responsibility to themselves are more inclined to participate in bone marrow donation.<ref name=":3" /> Similar findings were observed in a 1986 study by Piliavin and Libby focusing on blood donors.<ref name=":8" /> These studies suggest that personal norms lead to the activation of moral norms, leading individuals to feel compelled to help others.<ref name=":3" />
 
* Enhanced Fear Recognition
 
Abigail Marsh has described psychopaths as the “opposite” group of people to extreme altruists<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Marsh |first=Abigail A. |date=2016 |title=Understanding amygdala responsiveness to fearful expressions through the lens of psychopathy and altruism |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jnr.23668 |journal=Journal of Neuroscience Research |language=en |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=513–525 |doi=10.1002/jnr.23668 |pmid=26366635 |issn=0360-4012}}</ref> and has conducted a few research, comparing these two groups of individuals. Utilising techniques such as brain imaging and behavioural experiments, Marsh’s team observed that kidney donors tend to have larger amygdala sizes and exhibit better abilities in recognizing fearful expressions compared to psychopathic individuals.<ref name=":0" /> Furthermore, an improved ability to recognize fear has been associated with an increase in prosocial behaviours, including greater charity contribution.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Marsh |firstfirst1=Abigail A. |last2=Kozak |first2=Megan N. |last3=Ambady |first3=Nalini |date=2007 |title=Accurate identification of fear facial expressions predicts prosocial behavior. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.239 |journal=Emotion |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=239–251 |doi=10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.239 |issn=1931-1516 |pmc=PMC27434522743452 |pmid=17516803}}</ref>
 
* Fast Decisions when Perform Acts of Extreme Altruism.
 
Rand and Epstein explored the behaviours of 51 Carnegie Hero Medal Recipients, demonstrating how extreme altruistic behaviours often stem from system I of the [[Dual process theory|Dual Process Theory]], which leads to rapid and intuitive behaviours.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Rand |firstfirst1=David G. |last2=Epstein |first2=Ziv G. |date=2014-10-15 |editor-last=Boraud |editor-first=Thomas |title=Risking Your Life without a Second Thought: Intuitive Decision-Making and Extreme Altruism |url=https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109687 |journal=PLoSPLOS ONE |language=en |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=e109687 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0109687 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC41981144198114 |pmid=25333876|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j9687R }}</ref> Additionally, a separate by Carlson et al. indicated that such prosocial behaviours are prevalent in emergencies where immediate actions are required.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Carlson |firstfirst1=Ryan W. |last2=Aknin |first2=Lara B. |last3=Liotti |first3=Mario |date=2016-07-01 |title=When is giving an impulse? An ERP investigation of intuitive prosocial behavior |url=https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/11/7/1121/1753464 |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1121–1129 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsv077 |issn=1749-5024 |pmc=PMC49270324927032 |pmid=26084530}}</ref>
 
This discovery has led to ethical debates, particularly in the context of living organ donation, where laws regarding this issue differ by country.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lopp |first=Leonie |url=https://books.google.co.ukcom/books?hl=en&lr=&id=lUA_AAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&ots=ijrvJYL0GO&sig=9A62MqaD0O6dG4rLJNQFz8DkqWA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Regulations Regarding Living Organ Donation in Europe: Possibilities of Harmonisation |date=2013-06-12 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-642-33799-4 |language=en}}</ref> As observed in extreme altruists, these decisions are made intuitively, which may reflect insufficient consideration. Critics are concerned about whether this rapid decision encompasses a thorough cost-benefit analysis and question the appropriateness of exposing donors to such risk.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Friedman Ross |firstfirst1=Lainie |last2=Glannon |first2=Walter |last3=Josephson |first3=Michelle A. |last4=Thistlethwaite |first4=J. Richard Jr |date=2002-08-15 |title=Should all living donors be treated equally? |url=https://journals.lww.com/transplantjournal/Fulltext/2002/08150/Should_all_living_donors_be_treated_equally_.25.aspx |journal=Transplantation |language=en-US |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=418-21; discussion 421-2 |doi=10.1097/00007890-200208150-00025 |pmid=12177627 |issn=0041-1337}}</ref>
 
* Social Discounting
 
One finding suggests how extreme altruists exhibit lower levels of social discounting as compared to others. With that meaning extreme altruists place a higher value on the welfare of strangers than a typical person does.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Vekaria |firstfirst1=Kruti M. |last2=Brethel-Haurwitz |first2=Kristin M. |last3=Cardinale |first3=Elise M. |last4=Stoycos |first4=Sarah A. |last5=Marsh |first5=Abigail A. |date=2017-04-28 |title=Social discounting and distance perceptions in costly altruism |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-017-0100 |journal=Nature Human Behaviour |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |doi=10.1038/s41562-017-0100 |issn=2397-3374}}</ref>
 
* Low Social-Economic Status
 
Analysis of 676 [[Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Hero Award Recipients]]<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Ronald C. |date=September 1996-09 |title=Attributes of carnegie medalists performing acts of heroism and of the recipients of these acts |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0162309596000593 |journal=Ethology and Sociobiology |language=en |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=355–362 |doi=10.1016/S0162-3095(96)00059-3}}</ref> and another study on 243 rescuing acts<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Lyons |first=Minna T. |date=2005-09-01 |title=Who are the Heroes? Characteristics of People Who Rescue Others |url=https://akjournals.com/doi/10.1556/jcep.3.2005.3-4.2 |journal=Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=245–254 |doi=10.1556/JCEP.3.2005.3-4.2 |issn=1589-7397}}</ref> reveal that a significant proportion of rescuers come from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Johnson attributes the distribution to the high-risk occupations that are more prevalent between lower socioeconomic groups.<ref name=":5" /> Another hypothesis proposed by Lyons is that individuals from these groups may perceive they have less to lose when engaging in high-risk extreme altruistic behaviours.<ref name=":6" />
 
=== Possible Explanations ===
Evolutionary theories such as the kin-selection, reciprocity, vested interest and punishment either contradict or do not fully explain the concept of extreme altruism.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |last=Barclay |first=Sara Kafashan, Adam Sparks, Amanda Rotella, Pat |title=Why Heroism Exists: Evolutionary Perspectives on Extreme Helping |date=2016 |work=Handbook of Heroism and Heroic Leadership |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315690100-9/heroism-exists-evolutionary-perspectives-extreme-helping-sara-kafashan-adam-sparks-amanda-rotella-pat-barclay |access-date=2024-03-19 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315690100-9/heroism-exists-evolutionary-perspectives-extreme-helping-sara-kafashan-adam-sparks-amanda-rotella-pat-barclay |doi-broken-date=20 March 2024 |isbn=978-1-315-69010-0}}</ref> As a result, considerable research has attempted for a separate explanation for this behaviour.  
 
* Costly Signalling Theory for Extreme Behaviours
 
Research suggests that males are more likely to engage in heroic and risk-taking behaviours due to a preference among females for such traits.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Kelly |firstfirst1=Susan |last2=Dunbar |first2=R. I. M. |date=June 2001-06 |title=Who dares, wins: Heroism versus altruism in women’swomen's mate choice |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12110-001-1018-6 |journal=Human Nature |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=89–105 |doi=10.1007/s12110-001-1018-6 |pmid=26192164 |issn=1045-6767}}</ref> These extreme altruistic behaviours could serve to act as an unconscious “signal” to showcase superior power and ability compared to ordinary individuals.<ref name=":7" /> When an extreme altruist survives a high-risk situation, they send an “honest signal” of quality.<ref name=":7" /> Three qualities hypothesized to be exhibited by extreme altruists, which could be interpreted as "signals," are: (1) traits that are difficult to fake, (2) a willingness to help, and (3) generous behaviours.<ref name=":7" />
 
* Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
 
The empathy altruism hypothesis appears to align with the concept of extreme altruism without contradiction. The hypothesis was supported with further brain scanning research, which indicates how this group of people demonstrate a higher level of empathy concern. The level of empathy concern then triggers activation in specific brain regions, urging the individual to engage in heroic behaviours.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=FeldmanHall |firstfirst1=Oriel |last2=Dalgleish |first2=Tim |last3=Evans |first3=Davy |last4=Mobbs |first4=Dean |date=January 2015-01 |title=Empathic concern drives costly altruism |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1053811914008696 |journal=NeuroImage |language=en |volume=105 |pages=347–356 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.10.043 |pmc=PMC42755724275572 |pmid=25462694}}</ref>
 
* Mistakes and Outliers
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