Altruism: Difference between revisions

Both genetics and environment have been implicated in influencing pro-social or altruistic behavior.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fM7RAgAAQBAJ | title=Prosocial Development: A Multidimensional Approach | isbn=978-0-19-996478-9 | last1=Padilla-Walker | first1=Laura M. | last2=Carlo | first2=Gustavo | date=15 December 2015 | publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref> Candidate genes include OXTR ([[gene polymorphism|polymorphism]]s in the [[oxytocin receptor]]),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singer |first1=Tania |last2=Snozzi |first2=Romana |last3=Bird |first3=Geoffrey |last4=Petrovic |first4=Predrag |last5=Silani |first5=Giorgia |last6=Heinrichs |first6=Markus |last7=Dolan |first7=Raymond J. |title=Effects of oxytocin and prosocial behavior on brain responses to direct and vicariously experienced pain |journal=Emotion |date=December 2008 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=781–791 |doi=10.1037/a0014195 |pmid=19102589 |pmc=2672051 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Israel |first1=Salomon |last2=Weisel |first2=Ori |last3=Ebstein |first3=Richard P. |last4=Bornstein |first4=Gary |title=Oxytocin, but not vasopressin, increases both parochial and universal altruism |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |date=August 2012 |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1341–1344 |doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.02.001 |pmid=22377540 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barraza |first1=Jorge A. |last2=McCullough |first2=Michael E. |last3=Ahmadi |first3=Sheila |last4=Zak |first4=Paul J. |title=Oxytocin infusion increases charitable donations regardless of monetary resources |journal=Hormones and Behavior |date=July 2011 |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=148–151 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.04.008 }}</ref> [[CD38]], [[COMT]], [[DRD4]], [[DRD5]], [[IGF2]], [[AVPR1A]]<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0025274 | doi-access=free | title=AVPR1A Variant Associated with Preschoolers' Lower Altruistic Behavior | date=2011 | last1=Avinun | first1=Reut | last2=Israel | first2=Salomon | last3=Shalev | first3=Idan | last4=Gritsenko | first4=Inga | last5=Bornstein | first5=Gary | last6=Ebstein | first6=Richard P. | last7=Knafo | first7=Ariel | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=6 | issue=9 | pages=e25274 | pmid=21980412 | pmc=3182215 | bibcode=2011PLoSO...625274A }}</ref> and [[GABRB2]].<ref>{{cite journal| pmc=3871336 | pmid=24132092 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2013.0395 | volume=9 | issue=6 | title=Genes underlying altruism | year=2013 | journal=Biol Lett | page=20130395 | last1 = Thompson | first1 = GJ | last2 = Hurd | first2 = PL | last3 = Crespi | first3 = BJ}}</ref> It is theorized that some of these genes influence altruistic behavior by modulating levels of neurotransmitters such as [[serotonin]] and [[dopamine]].

Rand and Epstein explored the behaviours of 51 Carnegie Hero Medal Recipients, demonstrating how extreme altruistic behaviours often stem from system I of the [[Dual process theory|Dual Process Theory]], which leads to rapid and intuitive behaviours.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Rand |first1=David G. |last2=Epstein |first2=Ziv G. |title=Risking Your Life without a Second Thought: Intuitive Decision-Making and Extreme Altruism |journal=PLoSPLOS ONE |date=15 October 2014 |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=e109687 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0109687 |pmid=25333876 |doi-access=free |pmc=4198114 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j9687R }}</ref> Additionally, a separate by Carlson et al. indicated that such prosocial behaviours are prevalent in emergencies where immediate actions are required.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carlson |first1=Ryan W. |last2=Aknin |first2=Lara B. |last3=Liotti |first3=Mario |title=When is giving an impulse? An ERP investigation of intuitive prosocial behavior |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |date=July 2016 |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1121–1129 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsv077 |pmc=4927032 |pmid=26084530 }}</ref>

This discovery has led to ethical debates, particularly in the context of living organ donation, where laws regarding this issue differ by country.<ref>{{cite journalbook |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-33799-4 |title=Regulations Regarding Living Organ Donation in Europe |date=2013 |last1=Lopp |first1=Leonie |isbn=978-3-642-33798-7 }}{{pn}}</ref> As observed in extreme altruists, these decisions are made intuitively, which may reflect insufficient consideration. Critics are concerned about whether this rapid decision encompasses a thorough cost-benefit analysis and question the appropriateness of exposing donors to such risk.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman Ross |first1=Lainie |last2=Glannon |first2=Walter |last3=Josephson |first3=Michelle A. |last4=Thistlethwaite |first4=J. Richard |title=Should all living donors be treated equally? |journal=Transplantation |date=August 2002 |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=418–421 |doi=10.1097/00007890-200208150-00025 |pmid=12177627 }}</ref>

Research suggests that males are more likely to engage in heroic and risk-taking behaviours due to a preference among females for such traits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelly |first1=Susan |last2=Dunbar |first2=R. I. M. |title=Who dares, wins: Heroism versus altruism in women’swomen's mate choice |journal=Human Nature |date=June 2001 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=89–105 |doi=10.1007/s12110-001-1018-6 |pmid=26192164 }}</ref> These extreme altruistic behaviours could serve to act as an unconscious “signal” to showcase superior power and ability compared to ordinary individuals.<ref name=":7" /> When an extreme altruist survives a high-risk situation, they send an “honest signal” of quality.<ref name=":7" /> Three qualities hypothesized to be exhibited by extreme altruists, which could be interpreted as "signals," are: (1) traits that are difficult to fake, (2) a willingness to help, and (3) generous behaviours.<ref name=":7" />

* {{cite journal |last1=Fehr |first1=Ernst |last2=Fischbacher |first2=Urs |title=The nature of human altruism |journal=Nature |date=October 2003 |volume=425 |issue=6960 |pages=785–791 |doi=10.1038/nature02043 |pmid=14574401 |bibcode=2003Natur.425..785F }}