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**:A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize, so people become more helpful toward others after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation.<ref name=AEP1/>
**:People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better cooperativeness assessments or promises exchange. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger-scale competitions, such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group.<ref name=AEP1/>
** Indirect reciprocity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nowak |first1=Martin A. |last2=Sigmund |first2=Karl |title=Evolution of indirect reciprocity |journal=Nature |date=October 2005 |volume=437 |issue=7063 |pages=1291–1298 |doi=10.1038/nature04131 |pmid=16251955 |bibcode=2005Natur.437.1291N |url=http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/7763/1/IR-05-079.pdf }}</ref> Because people avoid poor reciprocators and cheaters, a person's [[reputation]] is important. A person esteemed for their reciprocity is more likely to receive assistance, even from individuals they have not directly interacted with before.<ref name=AEP1/>
** [[Strong reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gintis |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Gintis|title=Strong Reciprocity and Human Sociality|journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]]|volume=206|issue=2|date=September 2000|pmid=10966755|pages=169–179|doi=10.1006/jtbi.2000.2111|bibcode=2000JThBi.206..169G |hdl=10419/105717|hdl-access=free|citeseerx=10.1.1.335.7226 |s2cid=9260305 }}</ref> This form of reciprocity is expressed by people who invest more resources in cooperation and punishment than what is deemed optimal based on established theories of altruism.
** Pseudo-reciprocity.<ref>{{cite book | chapter=By-product Benefits, Reciprocity, and Pseudoreciprocity in Mutualism|editor-last=Hammerstein | editor-first=Peter | title=Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation | publisher=MIT Press | date=2003 |pages=203–222 | isbn=978-0-262-08326-3 | doi=10.7551/mitpress/3232.003.0013}}</ref> An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist.
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The benefits for the altruist may be increased, and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than competitors, and to members in-groups than to members of out-groups.<ref name=AEP1/>
The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]], a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoeba]]e until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hudson |first1=Richard Ellis |last2=Aukema |first2=Juliann Eve |last3=Rispe |first3=Claude |last4=Roze |first4=Denis |title=Altruism, Cheating, and Anticheater Adaptations in Cellular Slime Molds |journal=The American Naturalist |date=July 2002 |volume=160 |issue=1 |pages=31–43 |doi=10.1086/340613 |pmid=18707497 |url=https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02683365/file/2002_Hudson%20et%20al._Am%20Nat_1.pdf }}</ref>
Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Stephanie L. |last2=Brown |first2=R. Michael |title=TARGET ARTICLE: Selective Investment Theory: Recasting the Functional Significance of Close Relationships |journal=Psychological Inquiry |date=January 2006 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=1–29 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli1701_01 |s2cid=144718661 }}</ref>
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A recent meta-analysis of fMRI studies conducted by Shawn Rhoads, Jo Cutler, and Abigail Marsh analyzed the results of prior studies of generosity in which participants could freely choose to give or not give resources to someone else.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A |last2=Cutler |first2=Jo |last3=Marsh |first3=Abigail A |title=A feature-based network analysis and fMRI meta-analysis reveal three distinct types of prosocial decisions |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |date=30 December 2021 |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=1214–1233 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsab079 |pmid=34160604 |pmc=8717062 }}</ref> The results of this study confirmed that altruism is supported by distinct mechanisms from giving motivated by reciprocity or by fairness. This study also confirmed that the right ventral striatum is recruited during altruistic giving, as well as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, bilateral [[anterior cingulate cortex]], and bilateral anterior [[Insular cortex|insula]], which are regions previously implicated in [[empathy]].
[[Abigail Marsh]] has conducted studies of real-world altruists that have also identified an important role for the [[amygdala]] in human altruism. In real-world altruists, such as people who have donated kidneys to strangers, the amygdala is larger than in typical adults. Altruists' amygdalas are also more responsive than those of typical adults to the sight of others' distress, which is thought to reflect an empathic response to distress.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |last2=Stoycos |first2=Sarah A. |last3=Brethel-Haurwitz |first3=Kristin M. |last4=Robinson |first4=Paul |last5=VanMeter |first5=John W. |last6=Cardinale |first6=Elise M. |date=2014-10-21 |title=Neural and cognitive characteristics of extraordinary altruists |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=42 |pages=15036–15041 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1408440111 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4210306 |pmid=25225374|bibcode=2014PNAS..11115036M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brethel-Haurwitz |first1=Kristin M. |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Cardinale |first3=Elise M. |last4=Stoianova |first4=Maria |last5=Stoycos |first5=Sarah A. |last6=Lozier |first6=Leah M. |last7=VanMeter |first7=John W. |last8=Marsh |first8=Abigail A. |date=2017-10-25 |title=Amygdala–midbrain connectivity indicates a role for the mammalian parental care system in human altruism |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=284 |issue=1865 |pages=20171731 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.1731 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=5666102 |pmid=29070724}}</ref> This structure may also be involved in altruistic choices due to its role in encoding the value of outcomes for others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhoads |first1=Shawn A |last2=O'Connell |first2=Katherine |last3=Berluti |first3=Kathryn |last4=Ploe |first4=Montana L |last5=Elizabeth |first5=Hannah S |last6=Amormino |first6=Paige |last7=Li |first7=Joanna L |last8=Dutton |first8=Mary Ann |last9=VanMeter |first9=Ashley Skye |last10=Marsh |first10=Abigail A |title=Neural responses underlying extraordinary
====Psychology====
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====Genetics and environment====
Both genetics and environment have been implicated in influencing pro-social or altruistic behavior.<ref>{{cite
===Sociology===
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The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''.
Examples include [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[Occupational burnout|burnout]] seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.<ref>{{cite
Extreme altruism also known as costly altruism, extraordinary altruism, or heroic behaviours (shall be distinguished from [[Hero|heroism]]), refers to selfless acts directed to a stranger which significantly exceed the normal altruistic behaviours, often involving risks or great cost to the altruists themselves.<ref name=":0" /> Since acts of extreme altruism are often directed towards strangers, many commonly accepted models of simple altruism appear inadequate in explaining this phenomenon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Waal |first1=Frans B.M. |title=Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |date=1 January 2008 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=279–300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 |pmid=17550343 }}</ref>
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=== Possible Explanations ===
Evolutionary theories such as the kin-selection, reciprocity, vested interest and punishment either contradict or do not fully explain the concept of extreme altruism.<ref name=":7">{{cite
* Costly Signalling Theory for Extreme Behaviours
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