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'''Arabic miniatures''' ([[Arabic]]: ٱلْمُنَمْنَمَات ٱلْعَرَبِيَّة, ''Al-Munamnamāt al-ʿArabīyyah'') are small [[painting]]s on [[paper]], usually book or manuscript illustrations but also sometimes separate artworks that occupy entire pages. The earliest example dates from around 690 AD, with a flourishing of the art from between 1000 and 1200 AD in the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid caliphate]]. The art form went through several stages of evolution while witnessing the fall and rise of several [[Caliphate|Islamic caliphates]]. Arab miniaturists absorbed [[Chinese art|Chinese]] and [[Persian art|Persian]] influences brought by the [[Mongol invasion of the Middle East|Mongol destructions]], and at last, got totally assimilated and subsequently disappeared due to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] occupation of the Arab world. Nearly all forms of Islamic miniatures ([[Persian miniature]]s, [[Ottoman miniature]]s and [[Mughal miniature]]s) owe their existences to Arabic miniatures, as Arab patrons were the first to demand the production of [[Illuminated manuscript|illuminated manuscripts]] in the Caliphate, it wasn't until the 14th century that the artistic skill reached the non-Arab regions of the Caliphate.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mihram |first=Danielle |title=Research Guides: Medieval Studies and Research: Manuscripts: Art & Techniques |url=https://libguides.usc.edu/MedRenMSSandRareMatStudies/artandtechniques |access-date=2022-05-27 |website=libguides.usc.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref name=DavidCollection>{{cite web |title=Miniature Painting |url=https://www.davidmus.dk/en/collections/islamic/materials/miniatures |publisher=The David Collection |access-date=30 December 2017}}</ref><ref name="MMA1933">{{cite journal |title=Islamic Miniature Painting and Book Illumination |journal=Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art |date=October 1933 |volume=28 |issue=10 |pages=166–171 |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3255467.pdf.bannered.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dutton |first=Yasin |date=2016 |title=Review of Qur'ans of the Umayyads: A First Overview (Leiden Studies in Islam & Society), François Déroche |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44031130 |journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=153–157 |doi=10.3366/jqs.2016.0227 |jstor=44031130 |issn=1465-3591}}</ref><ref name=":2">Richard Ettinghausen, ''La Peinture arabe,'' Genève, Skira, 1977, 209 p.</ref>
Despite the considerable changes in Arabic miniature style and technique, even during their last decades, the early [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] Arab influence could still be noticed. Arabic miniature artists include [[Ismail al-Jazari]], who illustrated his own ''Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices,''<ref name=Jazari>al-Jazari, ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: Kitáb fí ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya'', transl. & anno. [[Donald Hill|Donald R. Hill]]. (1973), [[Springer Science+Business Media]].</ref> and the Abbasid artist, [[Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti|Yahya Al-Wasiti]], who probably lived in [[Baghdad]] in the late Abbasid era (12th to 13th-centuries), was one of the pre-eminent exponents of the Baghdad school. In 1236-1237, he is known to have transcribed and illustrated the book, ''[[Maqamat Badi' az-Zaman al-Hamadhani|Maqamat]]'' (also known as the ''Assemblies'' or the ''Sessions''), a series of anecdotes of social satire written by [[Al-Hariri of Basra]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Baghdad school – Islamic art|encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Baghdad-school |access-date=2022-05-23 |publisher=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> The narrative concerns the travels of a middle-aged man as he uses his charm and eloquence to swindle his way across the Arabic world.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315121970 |title=Art, Awakening, and Modernity in the Middle East |date=2017-11-22 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315121970 |isbn=978-1-315-12197-0 |editor-last=Esanu |editor-first=Octavian}}</ref>
With most surviving Arabic [[manuscript]]s in western museums,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-30 |title=الكنوز الضائعة.. هكذا انتقلت أشهر المخطوطات العربية إلى مكتبات العالم المختلفة |url=https://www.sasapost.com/arabic-manuscripts-in-foreign-libraries/ |access-date=2022-05-27 |website=ساسة بوست |archive-date=2022-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005024423/https://www.sasapost.com/arabic-manuscripts-in-foreign-libraries/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Arabic miniatures occupy very little space in modern Arab culture.<ref>{{Cite journal |
== Origins ==
===
The following manuscripts are listed in a chronological order,
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The
There are no [[Arabic diacritics|diacritical]] marks to indicate short vowels, but consonants are occasionally differentiated with oblique dashes. The text is laid out in the format that was to become standard for complete Quran manuscripts, with chapter divisions indicated by a decorated line in the form of basic geometric shapes painted with [[Lead(II,IV) oxide|red lead]], an ancient pigment used from 300 BCE onwards, such motifs vary in color and shapes in this manuscript, in one folio, three wavy threads of orange-red colour separated by dots run parallel over the entire span of the page, In the outer margin, the three lines are interlaced to draw a highly stylized [[Arecaceae|palm leaf]], in another folio, the separator is covered with blackheads. The verse endings are indicated by intertextual clustered dots.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Birmingham Qur'an Manuscript |url=https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/facilities/cadbury/TheBirminghamQuranManuscript.aspx |access-date=2022-06-11 |website=University of Birmingham |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=FAQs |url=https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/facilities/cadbury/birmingham-quran-mingana-collection/birmingham-quran/faqs.aspx |access-date=2022-06-11 |website=University of Birmingham |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Codex Arabe 328c – A Qur'anic Manuscript From 1st Century Of Hijra |url=https://www.islamic-awareness.org/quran/text/mss/m1572 |access-date=2022-06-11 |website=www.islamic-awareness.org}}</ref>
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In the
Two additional folia have been preserved, one kept in the [[Vatican Library]] ([[Vat. Ar.]] 1605/1) and the other in the [[Khalili Collections]] in London (KFQ 60), attributed to the 7th century, six oval dots ranked in three pairs also punctuate the verses. Every fifth verse is marked by a red ''alif s''urrounded by dots (rather than hollow circles like in Codex B. L. Or. 2165). The ''surahs'' are separated by a space.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Déroche |first=François |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/489708670 |title=Catalogue des manuscrits arabes. |date=
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In the
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Simple ornaments of the borders and openings of the surahs in the pages of the 1st century ''hijra'' Qur'ans are also found''.'' A notable example is the ''TIEM ŞE 321'' [[Mus'haf]] (This manuscript belongs to the Şam Evrakı ‘Papers of Syria’ collection, at the [[Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum|Turkish and Islamic arts Museum]]). The
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This copy was written with 25 lines to the page on folios in vertical format. The average height of the line is about 11.5 mm. With homogenous quires with five bifolios. The
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| footer = Pages from the “Qur'ān Of ʿUthmān” At The Turkish and Islamic Art Museum, Istanbul, Turkey, second image reads: کٮٮه عٮماں ٮں عڡاں ڡى سںه ٮلٮىں ("ʿUthmān bin ʿAffān wrote it in the year
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Another manuscript housed in the [[Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum]] is the "Qur'an of 'Uthman", due to its [[Colophon (publishing)|colophon]] that attributes the scribal work of the mus'haf to [[Uthman|'Uthman bin' Affan]], the third [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] caliph, however, the style of script and decorations seems to go against this claim. Therefore, it is more likely that this manuscript dates back to the second half of 1st century or first half of 2nd century ''hijra''. The codex was restored by ''Dāwūd bin ʿAlī al-Kaylānī'' on 3 December 1437 CE.
The manuscript is written on
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The [[Topkapi manuscript|Topkapi Mushaf]], also called “Qur'ān Of ʿUthmān” ([[Topkapı Palace|Topkapi Museum]], [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]]), From 1st / 2nd Century Hijra, is traditionally attributed to
Its surahs are separated by ornamented horizontal bands. The manuscript also contains large circular rosettes, these are found after every 5 and 10 [[Āyah|Ayahs]], while rectangular shaped signs are found after every 100 verses and signs of similar shape following every 200 verses in some surahs.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Tayyar |last=Altıkulaç |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/713324877 |title=Al-Muṣḥaf al-sharif : attributed to ʻUthmān bin ʻAffān : (the copy at the Topkapı Palace Museum) |date=2007 |publisher=Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture |isbn=978-92-9063-167-5 |oclc=713324877}}</ref><ref>S. al-Munajjid, Dirāsāt fī Tārīkh al-Khatt al-ʿArabī Mundhu Bidayatihi ilā Nihayat al-ʿAsr al-Umawi (French Title: Etudes De Paleographie Arabe), 1972, Dar al-Kitab al-Jadid: Beirut (Lebanon), p. 55.</ref>
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As for the [[Samarkand Kufic Quran|“Qur'ān Of ʿUthmān”]] (also known as the
Written in the territory of modern Iraq in the [[Kufic|Kufic script]]. Now kept in the [[Hast Imam library]], in [[Tashkent]], [[Uzbekistan]].<ref>A. Shebunin, "Kuficheskii Koran Imp. SPB. Publichnoi Biblioteki", Zapiski Vostochnago Otdieleniia Imperatorskago Russkago Arkheologicheskago Obshchestva, 1891, Volume 6, pp. 69-133.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2006-01-05 |title=Tashkent's hidden Islamic relic |language=en-GB |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4581684.stm |access-date=2022-06-10}}</ref> Its verse endings are marked by small panels of diagonals lines; the tenth verse is marked with a square medallion illuminated in blue, green, red and [[manganese]] with a [[Star|stellar]] design.<ref>{{Cite book |last=al-Munaǧǧid |first=Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/469853665 |title=Etudes de paléographie arabe |date=1972 |publisher=New Book Publishing House |oclc=469853665}}</ref>
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The only surviving Arabic illuminated manuscript dating from before the 11th century is the "Great Umayyad Qur'an". Found in [[Great Mosque of Sanaa|the Great Mosque in Sana'a]], ornamentation of this manuscript incorporated motifs that are very similar to those used to decorate the [[Dome of the Rock]], the [[Umayyad Mosque|Great Mosque of Damascus]] and the [[desert castles]] of Umayyads. Because of this the time of production of this Qur'an has been narrowed to between 691 and 743 CE. It is the only lavishly illuminated Qur'an codex extant that can be securely placed in the Umayyad period. It's currently housed in the ''Dar al-Makhtutat.'' The manuscript includes full illustrations that take up entire pages, and also ''[[sūrah]]'' dividers and ornamental borders. One of the miniatures representing [[Jannah]] is based on a [[cosmogram]], and, on the reverse, a [[mosque]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=von Bothmer|first=Hans-Caspar |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/258068564 |title=Architekturbilder im Koran : eine Prachthandschrift der Umayyadenzeit aus dem Yemen |oclc=258068564}}</ref>
[[File:Kufi script (D.Va) on parchment (Qur'anic verses).jpg|thumb|right|9th century Qur'anic fragments written in Kufic script.]]
===Rise===
The first illustrated Arabic manuscript still preserved from the
== Development ==
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The Arab society present at that time showed a great interest in [[Theatre|theatrical shows]] and particularly in [[puppet]]s and [[Shadow play|shadow theatre]]. The appearance of the characters depicted in the [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniatures]] are reminiscent of the figurines from these shows. In addition, the epoch featured a great enthusiasm for the sessions or [[Maqamat al-Hariri|Maqamat al-Harīrī]], tales featuring a [[jester]] character to whom many [[adventure]]s happen. The combination of these elements of interest may explain the commissioning of
[[File:Yahyâ_ibn_Mahmûd_al-Wâsitî_006.jpg|thumb|200x200px|The 7th Maqāma of [[Al-Hariri of Basra|Al-Hariri]], illustration by the Abbasid artist [[Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti]] from the 1237 manuscript (BNF ms. arabe 5847).|left]]
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It is rare to have an example of both text and [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|illustrations]] of the same page, which makes it difficult to gather information about [[illuminated manuscript]]s. In some cases, it is possible that illustrations were added to an already existing text at a later date.<ref name=":0" /> Fatimid illustration style can be demonstrated by one surviving piece of paper, which was excavated in Cairo. This single sheet of paper has drawings on both sides; one side showing a lion, and the other, a hare. While it is unclear whether this page originated from a work of, potentially, scientific or [[zoological]] subject matter, it is an example of larger patterns of naturalistic and figural representation within [[Fatimid art]].<ref>{{Cite journal |
===Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517)===
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[[Cairo]], [[Damascus]], and [[Aleppo]] were among the main centers of manuscript production. Mamluk-period [[Qur'an]]s were richly [[Illuminated manuscript|illuminated]] and exhibit stylistic similarities with those produced under the contemporary [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanids]] in Iran.<ref name="Massumeh">{{Cite book |
== Decline ==
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===Mongol rule===
Arab miniaturists had to adapt to the tastes of their new rulers and the [[Mongols]] who brought with them [[Chinese art|Chinese]] influences. This influence is felt in particular in the book of ''[[Manafi' al-hayawan]]'' by Ibn [[Bukhtishu]] (Pierpont Morgan Library, M.500), the [[The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries|''Vestiges of the past'']] of the [[University of Edinburgh]] (Ms.161) dated 1307 or even ''The marvels of creation and their peculiarities'' from the [[Bavarian State Library]] (C.Ar.464). However, this art continued regressing, [[Iraq]] gradually becoming a satellite region of the [[Ilkhanate]] and the network of local sponsors gradually disappeared.<ref>''La Peinture arabe'', p.135-142</ref>
<gallery>
File:Arabischer Maler um 1295 001.jpg|''kitab fawa'id al hayawan'', [[Pierpont Morgan Library]]
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===Last traces===
One of the last important illustrated Arabic manuscripts is a copy of [[Zakariya al-Qazwini|Al-Qazwini's]] ''Wonders of Creation'' dated around 1370 and 1380 in Baghdad ([[Freer Gallery of Art]], 54.33-114). It shows both Mongol and Persian influences, although it still remains faithful to the
== Influences ==
[[Figurative art]] has been known to [[Arabs]] since [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic]] times. Many examples of figurative representations such as [[fresco]]es and [[relief]]s of humans and animals adorn the palaces of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] period, as on the [[Mshatta Facade]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Terry |first=Allen |title=Five essays on Islamic art |date=1988 |publisher=Solipsist Press |isbn=0-944940-00-5 |oclc=19270867}}</ref> or the [[desert castles]] of the [[Levant]], or the harems of the Abbasid era.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hoffman |first=Eva R.
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== Materials and techniques ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Painting materials<ref>{{Cite journal |
|-
! Color(s) !! Source(s)
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* [[Indigo dye|Indigo]], (نيلي), derived from the plant ''[[Indigofera tinctoria]]''
* [[Ultramarine]], (صبغة اللازورد), made from the minerals [[lapis lazuli]] or [[azurite]]; and
* [[Azurite]], (اللَّازَوَرْد), Cu<sub>3</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>, a soft, deep-blue [[copper]] [[mineral]] produced by weathering of copper ore deposits.
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<gallery widths="130" heights="130" perrow="5">
File:Meister des al-Mubashshir-Manuskripts 002.jpg|''"Kitāb mukhtār al-ḥikam"'' by [[Al-Mubashshir ibn Fatik]], 13th century [[manuscript]].
File:Arabischer Maler um 1335 003.jpg|Arabic [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] featuring
File:Irakischer Maler um 1230 005.jpg|[[Maqama]]t of [[Al-Hariri of Basra|al-Hariri]] (43rd maqam), ''The Story of the Lost Traveler''.
File:Syrischer Maler um 1300 001.jpg|Abû Zayd preaches in the [[mosque]] of [[Samarkand]], circa 1300. Maqamat of [[Al-Hariri of Basra|al-Hariri]] Syrian manuscript.
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== External links ==
{{commons category|Arab miniatures
{{Arabic manuscripts}}
{{Islamic art}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Arabic Miniature}}
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