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===Cytoarchitecture===
The insular cortex has regions of variable cell structure or [[cytoarchitecture]], changing from [[granule cell|granular]] in the [[Posterior (anatomy)|posterior]] portion to agranular in the [[anterior]] portion. The insula also receives differential [[cerebral cortex|cortical]] and [[thalamus|thalamic]] input along its length. The anterior insular cortex contains a population of [[spindle neurons]] (also called ''von Economo neurons''), identified as characterising a distinctive subregion as the agranular frontal insula.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bauernfeind A|title =A volumetric comparison of the insular cortex and its subregions in primates|journal=Human Evolution|date=April 2013|volume=64 | issue = 4 |pages=263–279|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.12.003|pmc=3756831|display-authors=etal|pmid=23466178|bibcode =2013JHumE..64..263B}}</ref>
===Development===
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In terms of function, the insula is believed to process convergent information to produce an ''emotionally relevant context for sensory experience''. To be specific, the anterior insula is related more to ''olfactory, gustatory, viscero-autonomic, and limbic function'', whereas the posterior insula is related more to ''auditory-somesthetic-skeletomotor'' function. [[fMRI|Functional imaging experiments]] have revealed that the insula has an important role in [[pain]] experience and the experience of a number of basic [[emotions]], including [[anger]], [[fear]], [[disgust]], [[happiness]], and [[sadness]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wager|first=Tor|title=Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion: A Meta-Analysis of Emotion Activation Studies in PET and fMRI|doi=10.1006/nimg.2002.1087|pmid=12030820|volume=16|issue=2|date=June 2002|journal=NeuroImage|pages=331–48|s2cid=7150871}}</ref>
The anterior insular cortex (AIC) is believed to be responsible for emotional feelings, including maternal and romantic love, anger, fear, sadness, happiness, sexual arousal, disgust, aversion, unfairness, inequity, indignation, uncertainty,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vilares I, Howard JD, Fernandes HL, Gottfried JA, Kording KP |title=Differential Representations of Prior and Likelihood Uncertainty in the Human Brain |journal=Current Biology |volume=22 |issue=18 |pages=1641–1648 |date=2012 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2012.07.010 |pmid=22840519 |pmc=3461114 |bibcode=2012CBio...22.1641V }}</ref> disbelief, social exclusion, trust, empathy, sculptural beauty, a ‘state of union with God’, and hallucinogenic states.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Craig |first=A. D. (Bud) |year=2009 |title=How do you feel — now? The anterior insula and human awareness |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |pages=59–70 |url=http://www.allmanlab.caltech.edu/biCNS217/PDFs/Craig2009.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20130107223506/http://www.allmanlab.caltech.edu/biCNS217/PDFs/Craig2009.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-01-07 |doi=10.1038/nrn2555 |issue=1 |pmid=19096369 |s2cid=2340032 }}</ref>
Functional imaging studies have also implicated the insula in conscious desires, such as food craving and drug craving. What is common to all of these emotional states is that they each change the body in some way and are associated with highly salient subjective qualities. The insula is well-situated for the integration of information relating to bodily states into higher-order cognitive and emotional processes. The insula receives information from "homeostatic afferent" sensory pathways via the thalamus and sends output to a number of other limbic-related structures, such as the [[amygdala]], the [[ventral striatum]], and the [[orbitofrontal cortex]], as well as to [[Motor cortex|motor cortices]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Craig |first=A. D. (Bud) |year=2002 |title=A new view of pain as a homeostatic emotion |journal=Trends in Neurosciences |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=303–307 |url=http://meagherlab.tamu.edu/M-Meagher/%20Health%20Psyc%20630/Readings%20630/Pain%20mech%20read/Craig%2003%20pain%20emotion.pdf |doi=10.1016/s0166-2236(03)00123-1 |pmid=12798599 |s2cid=19794544 |access-date=2009-09-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622001631/http://meagherlab.tamu.edu/M-Meagher/%20Health%20Psyc%20630/Readings%20630/Pain%20mech%20read/Craig%2003%20pain%20emotion.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
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