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In [[marketing]] and the social sciences, '''observational research''' (or field research) is a social research technique that involves the direct observation of phenomena in their natural setting. This differentiates it from [[experimental techniques|experimental research]] in which a quasi-artificial environment is created to control for spurious factors, and where at least one of the variables is manipulated as part of the
Compared with [[quantitative marketing research|quantitative research]] and [[experimental techniques|experimental research]], observational research tends to be less [[reliability (psychometric)|reliable]] but often more [[validity (psychometric)|valid]]. The main advantage of observational research is flexibility. The researchers can change their approach as needed. Also it measures behaviour directly, not reports of behaviour or intentions. The main disadvantage is it is limited to behavioural variables. It cannot be used to study cognitive or affective variables. Another disadvantage is that observational data is not usually generalizable.▼
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▲Observational research is a method of data collection that has become associated with qualitative research. <ref>Richie, J and Lewis, J., ''Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers,'' Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications, 2003, p. 3</ref> Compared with [[quantitative marketing research|quantitative research]] and [[experimental techniques|experimental research]], observational research tends to be less [[reliability (psychometric)|reliable]] but often more [[validity (psychometric)|valid]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}. The main advantage of observational research is flexibility. The researchers can change their approach as needed.
*'''Covert observational research''' - The researchers do not identify themselves. Either they mix in with the subjects undetected, or they observe from a distance. The advantages of this approach are: (1) It is not necessary to get the subjects’ cooperation, and (2) The subjects’ behaviour will not be contaminated by the presence of the researcher. Some researchers have ethical misgivings with the deceit involved in this approach.▼
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Generally, there are three methods used to collect data in observational research:<ref>Kazdin, Alan (2002), ''Research Design in Clinical Psychology,'' 4th ed., Needham Heights, MA, Allyn & Bacon. {{ISBN|0-205-33292-7}} Chapter 9</ref>
▲*'''Covert observational research'''
''Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,'' Vol. 20, No. 3, 1992, p. 219</ref>
*'''Overt observational research''' – The researchers identify themselves as researchers and explain the purpose of their observations. The problem with this approach is subjects may modify their behaviour when they know they are being watched. They portray their "ideal self" rather than their true self in what is called the [[Hawthorne effect|Hawthorne Effect]]. The advantage that the overt approach has over the covert approach is that there is no deception (see, for example, [[Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II (PCIA-II)| PCIA-II]]<ref>Holigrocki, R. J., & Kaminski, P. L., "A structural and microanalytic exploration of parent-child relational psychopathology," ''Constructivism in the Human Sciences,'' Vol. 7, 2002, pp 111-123; Holigrocki, R. J, Kaminski, P. L., & Frieswyk, S. H., "Introduction to the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment," ''Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic,'' Vol. 63, No. 3, 1999, 413–428.</ref>
*'''Participant Observation''' – The researcher participates in what they are observing so as to get a finer appreciation of the phenomena.<ref>Becker, H.S., "Problems of Inference and Proof in Participant Observation," ''American Sociological Review,'' Vol. 23, No. 6, 1958, pp. 652-660 </ref>
==In marketing research==
In marketing research, the most frequently used types of observational techniques are:
*Personal observation
**observing [[product (business)|products]] in use to detect usage patterns and problems
**[[Automatic number plate recognition|observing license
**determining the [[socio-economic status]] of shoppers
**determining the level of package scrutiny
**determining the time it takes to make a purchase decision
*Mechanical observation<ref>Grove, S.J. and Fisk, R.P., "Observational data collection methods for services marketing: an overview,"
''Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,'' Vol. 20, No. 3, 1992, pp 217-224</ref>
**[[eye-tracking]] analysis while subjects watch advertisements
***
***
**[[electronic checkout]] scanners
**on-site cameras in stores
** people meters (as in monitoring television viewing) e.g.[[Nielsen
**voice pitch meters
**[[psychogalvanometer]]
*Audits<ref>Housden, M., ''CIM Coursebook 05/06: Marketing Research and Information,'' Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005 [e-book edition]</ref>
**retail audits to determine the [[quality of service]] in stores
**inventory audits to determine [[product acceptance]]
**shelf space audits
**scanner based audits
*Trace Analysis<ref>Kunzli, A., "Empirical Approaches," in ''Handbook of Translation Studies,'' Yves Gambier and Luc van Doorslaer (eds), Volume 4, John Benjamin, 2003, pp 53-98</ref>
**credit card records
**[[computer cookie]] records
**[[garbology]]
**detecting store [[traffic
**exposure to advertisements
*Content analysis<ref>Drisko, J. and Maschi, T., ''Content Analysis,'' Oxford University Press, 2016</ref>
*Content analysis▼
**observe the content of magazines, television broadcasts, radio broadcasts, or newspapers, either articles, programs, or advertisements
==See also==
{{cmn|
* [[Consumer behaviour]]
▲* [[Content analysis]]
* [[Cultural anthropology]]
* [[Enterprise engagement]]
* [[Ethnography]]
* [[Experimental techniques]]
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* [[Quantitative marketing research]]
* [[Usability testing]]
}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* Russell W. Belk (ed), ''Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods in Marketing,'' Edward Elgar Publishing, 2006
* Constance T. Fischer (ed), ''Qualitative Research Methods for Psychologists,'' Elsevier, 2006
▲* [[List of economics topics]]
[[Category:Marketing research]]▼
[[Category:Marketing]]▼
[[Category:Evaluation methods]]▼
▲[[Category:Marketing techniques]]
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