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| caption = Ottoman miniature of the siege of Belgrade, 1456
| date = 4–22 July 1456
| place = Nándorfehérvár, (
| result = Hungarian and Serbian victory
| combatant1 = [[Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)|Kingdom of Hungary]]<br />[[Serbian Despotate]]
| combatant2 = [[Ottoman Empire]]
| commander1 = {{unbulleted list|'''[[John Hunyadi]]'''|[[Michael Szilágyi]]|[[John of Capistrano]]|[[Đurađ Branković]]}}
| commander2 = '''[[Mehmed II]]'''{{WIA}}<br />[[Zagan Pasha]]<br />[[Mahmud Pasha Angelović|Mahmud Pasha]]<br />[[Karaca Pasha]]{{KIA}}
| strength1 = 7,000 Castle defenders of Michael Szilágyi<ref name="Tarjan">{{cite journal |last=Tarján M. |first=Tamás |title=A nándorfehérvári diadal |trans-title=Triumph of Nándorfehérvár |url=https://rubicon.hu/kalendarium/1456-julius-22-a-nandorfehervari-diadal |journal=Rubicon (Hungarian Historical Information Dissemination) |language=Hungarian}}</ref><ref name="Banlaky - Preparations">{{Cite book |last=Bánlaky |first=József |title=A magyar nemzet hadtörténelme |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |trans-title=The Military History of the Hungarian Nation |chapter=Az 1456. évi országgyűlés határozatai. Események és intézkedések magyar részről Nándorfehérvár ostromának megkezdéséig. |trans-chapter=Resolutions of the Parliament of 1456. Events and Measures on the Hungarian Side Until the Beginning of the Siege of Belgrade. |chapter-url=https://mek.oszk.hu/09400/09477/html/0010/797.html}}</ref><br />10,000–12,000 Professional army of John Hunyadi (mostly cavalry)<ref name="Kovach">{{cite journal|author = Tom R. Kovach|title = The 1456 Siege of Belgrade|url = http://www.historynet.com/ottoman-hungarian-wars-siege-of-belgrade-in-1456.htm|access-date = March 6, 2015|journal = Military History |date=August 1996 |volume=13 |issue=3|page = 34}}</ref><ref name="Tarjan"/><br />A motley army about 30,000–60,000 recruited Crusaders (with only some professional units)<ref name="Banlaky - Siege">{{Cite book |last=Bánlaky |first=József |title=A magyar nemzet hadtörténelme |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |trans-title=The Military History of the Hungarian Nation |chapter=Nándorfehérvár ostroma |trans-chapter=The Siege of Belgrade |chapter-url=https://mek.oszk.hu/09400/09477/html/0010/799.html}}</ref><ref name = "Setton177">{{cite book|author = Kenneth M. Setton|title = The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of Julius III|isbn= 978-0871691613|year = 1984|page = 177}}</ref><ref name="Tarjan"/><br />200 boats (only 1 galley)<ref name="Banlaky - Preparations"/><ref name = "Shaw">{{cite book|author = Stanford J. Shaw|title = History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey, Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280–1808|isbn = 978-0521291637|year = 1976|page = [https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/63 63]|url = https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/63}}</ref><br />40 boats from the city<ref name="Banlaky - Preparations"/><br />Artillery<ref name="Banlaky - Preparations"/>
| strength2 = 30,000;<ref
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = 13,000 men
}}
{{Campaignbox Ottoman-Hungarian War}}
{{Serbian-Ottoman Wars (Medieval)}}
The '''siege of Belgrade''', or '''siege of Nándorfehérvár''' ({{
The Hungarian defenders, under the leadership of [[John Hunyadi]], who had garrisoned and strengthened the fortress city at his own expense, put up a determined resistance against the larger Ottoman army. The siege lasted for several weeks, during which both sides suffered heavy losses. The defenders used innovative tactics, including the use of heavy artillery and firearms, to repel the Ottoman assaults. Hunyadi's relief force destroyed a Turkish flotilla on 14 July 1456 before
John Hunyadi's successful defence of Belgrade earned him widespread acclaim and respect as a military leader though he died of the plague a few weeks later. The Ottomans would continue their expansion in other directions, and the struggle between the Ottoman Empire and European powers persisted for centuries. The battle's significance also extended beyond its immediate aftermath, as it demonstrated the importance of firearms and artillery in warfare, heralding a new era in military technology and tactics.
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== Prelude ==
[[File:Hunyady_János.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|[[John Hunyadi]], Regent-Governor of the [[Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)|Kingdom of Hungary]] (1446–1453)]]
After conducting [[Mehmed II#Conquest of Serbia (1454–1459)|two campaigns]] against the [[Serbian Despotate]] in 1454 and 1455, Sultan Mehmed decided to continue his conquests towards the northwest by capturing the strategically important city of Belgrade from the [[Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)|Kingdom of Hungary]]. Significant preparations were made by the Ottoman sultan for the conquest of the city, including the casting of 22 large cannons alongside many smaller ones and the establishment of a navy that would sail up the Danube to assist the army during the siege.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Türkmen |first=İlhan |date=5 January 2015 |title=The Campaigns Against Serbia During the Reign of Mehmed the Conqueror per Ottoman Chronicles |journal=Asia Minor Studies - International Journal of Social Sciences |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=115–132 |quote=Fatih Belgrad’ı alabilmek için esaslı bir hazırlık yapmıştır. Morava nehri üzerindeki Krusevaç’ta toplar döktürüp bunları Tuna nehri kanalıyla Hırsova’ya yollamıştır ve burada Rumeli Beylerbeyi Dayı Karaca Paşa’ya teslim edilmiştir. Binlerce işçinin çalıştığı bu top dökümhanelerinde yapılan toplar arasında boyları 27 ayak olan 22 büyük top bulunmaktadır. Ayrıca iki yüz çektirmeden oluşan bir ince donanma su yoluyla gelebilecek yardımları engellemek maksadıyla Vidin’den Tuna’ya çıkmıştır... Ümitsizliğin arttığı bu sırada Hunyadi komutasında Tuna’nın öte yakasından bir Macar ordusunun toplandığı haberi gelmiştir... Bu gelişme üzerine Fatih gerekli tedbirleri görüşmek üzere harp meclisini toplamıştır. Mecliste Karaca Bey; bir kısım Osmanlı askerî gücünün Tuna’nın öbür yakasına Padişah geçmese bile kendisi ile gönderilmesi gerektiğini arz etmiştir. Bu suretle Macar güçleri ile Belgrad arasına Osmanlı askerî güçleri girmiş olacaktır. Böylece iki taraf arasındaki irtibat koparılmak istenmiştir. Fakat Karaca Paşa’nın mecliste ortaya attığı bu fikir diğer kumandanlar tarafından uygun görülmemiştir... Fakat şurası bir gerçek ki Karaca Paşa’nın teklifi reddedilmiştir. Burada Fatih’in düşman Tuna’nın öte yakasına gelmiş iken ve bunca askerlik tecrübesine rağmen bu fikre katılmaması da izahı zor bir konudur. Belki Padişah düşman kuvvetlerinin Tuna’nın beri tarafına geçebileceklerine ihtimal vermemiş veya Türk donanmasının bunu durdurabileceğini düşünmüştür... Fakat durum ne olursa olsun Hunyadi, ordusu ile serbestçe gelip Tuna’nın öbür tarafına ordusunu kurmuştur... Surların dışında da şiddetli bir savaş başlamıştır. Türklerin bir hilesinden endişe eden Hunyadi dışarıdaki kuvvetlerine yerlerinden ayrılmamalarını emretmiştir. Fakat bu kuvvetler Türk tarafına doğru bir hücuma geçmiştir. Fatih düşmanı meydana çekerek imha etmek maksadıyla kale dibindeki askerlerin geri çekilmesi emrini verir. Böylece düşman kuvvetleri Türk ordugahına doğru çekilecek ve imha edilecektir. Fakat Hunyadi Fatih’in bu stratejisini anlayarak hemen ordusunun imdadına yetişmiştir... Durum her ne olursa olsun düşman kuvvetleri Türk ordugahına doğru ilerlemeye başlamışlardır. Kritovulos Belgrad müdafilerinin Türk toplarının yanına kadar gelerek ordugahı yağmaladıklarını anlatmaktadır. Ordugahın yağmalanmasının Fatih’in ileri atılıp saldırmasıyla engellediğini nakletmektedir. Vezirler Sultana ordugahı terk etmesini ve emin bir yere çekilmesini telkin ettiler, fakat Fatih Sultan Mehmed “Düşmenden yüz döndürmek sıngun nişanudur...” diyerek düşmanın bu hali karşısında bizzat öne atılarak düşmana hücum etmiştir. Böylece Osmanlılar ordugaha hücum eden öndeki düşman kuvvetlerini geri püskürttüler ve kılıçtan geçirdiler... İleri atılan bu kahraman Osmanlı padişahının bir yanında Özgüroglu İsa Bey, bir yanında da İshak Beyoğlu İsa Bey vardır. Padişah üzerine gelen birkaç kişiyi öldürmeye muvaffak olmuştur. Tam bu sırada alnından ve dizinden yaralanmıştır... Fatih’in düşman ordusunun üzerine atılması ve cesareti büyük bir bozgunu önlemiştir. Yeniden toparlanan ordu tekrar taarruza geçmiştir. Bu arada padişah bin bir güçlükle ikna edilip tehlikeli bölgeden uzaklaştırılmıştır. Türk ordusu da bir hayli yıpranmış ve kayıp vermiştir. Türk ordusunun yıpranması ve Belgrad’ın bu şartlar altında alınamayacağı harp meclisinde münakaşa ve müzakere edilerek muhasaranın kaldırılmasına karar verilmiştir. Böylece Osmanlı ordusu muhasarayı kaldırarak geri dönmüştür. |via=Dergipark}}</ref> At the end of 1455, after receiving reports of the imminent Ottoman attack, Hunyadi began preparations of his own for the fortification of the Danube, informing the [[papal legate]] that he was ready to contribute, at his own expenses, 7,000 men in the fight against the Ottomans and asking for military assistance.{{sfn | Muresanu | Treptow | 2018 | p=211}} Hunyadi then armed the [[Belgrade fortress]] with 5,000 mercenaries that he placed under the command of his brother-in-law [[Michael Szilágyi|Mihály Szilágyi]]{{sfn | Muresanu | Treptow | 2018 | p=214}} and his own eldest son [[Laszlo Hunyadi|László]].<ref name="Tucker 2009 p. 399" /> Belgrade inhabitants came to help transporting the war machines.{{sfn | Muresanu | Treptow | 2018 | p=214}} Hunyadi then proceeded to form a relief army of 12,000.<ref name="Rogers Caferro Reid 2010 p. 2-PA45" /> In April 1456 general mobilisation was decreed following a [[Diet (assembly)|Diet]] between the king and the noblemen.{{sfn | Muresanu | Treptow | 2018 | p=214}}
An Italian [[Franciscan]] friar allied to Hunyadi, [[Giovanni da Capistrano]], sent as an [[inquisitor]] to Hungary to eliminate or convert so-called [[heretics]], (non-Catholics)
The crusaders numbering about 25,000 included an inexperienced peasant force of about 18,000 some of them carrying only clubs and slings. The [[Conscription|recruits]] came under Hunyadi's banner, the core of which consisted of smaller bands of seasoned mercenaries and a few groups of minor knights. All in all, Hunyadi managed to build a force of 25–30,000 men.<ref name="Rogers Caferro Reid 2010 p. 2-PA45" />
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=== Preparation ===
[[File:Thuróczy krónika - Nándorfehérvár ostroma.jpg|thumb|250x250px|The Siege of Belgrade ([[Chronica Hungarorum]], 1488)]]
Before Hunyadi could assemble his forces, the Ottoman troops from the army of [[Mehmed II]] (160,000 men in early accounts, 60–70,000 according to newer research)
Szilágyi could rely on a force of only 5,000–7,000 men in the castle. Mehmed set up his siege on the neck of the headland and started heavily bombarding the city's walls on
The outnumbered defenders relied mainly on the strength of the formidable castle of Belgrade, which was at the time one of the best engineered in the Balkans. Belgrade had been designated as the capital of the [[Serbian Despotate]] by [[Stefan Lazarević]] 53 years prior, in 1403-1404, and remained in Serbian hands until 1427, when it was returned to Hungarian king [[King Sigismund of Hungary|Sigismund]].{{sfn|Ćirković|2004|p=89, 102}} The fortress was
=== Naval battle ===
[[File:fortress Belgrade.jpg|thumb|Fortress of Belgrade as it looked in the Middle Ages. The lower and upper town with the palace are visible.]]Hunyadi established his camp in the vicinity of the Zemun fortress, while the Ottoman fleet encircled Belgrade along the Danube to put a stop to the provisioning of the city.{{sfn | Muresanu | Treptow | 2018 | p=218}} Hunyadi's primary objective was to secure the river passage to support and supply the besieged garrison. To achieve this, he commanded the assembly of all ships on the Danube and communicated with Szilágyi, instructing him to be prepared to launch an attack on the Ottoman fleet from a strategic position. Szilágyi readied around forty vessels, crewed by Serbians from the city.{{sfn | Muresanu | Treptow | 2018 | p=218}} The Ottoman Naval [[Flotilla]] facing them, depending on the source, was made up of 21
On July 14, 1456, after 5 hours of battle
=== Ottoman assault ===
[[File:Dugovics.jpg|thumb|[[Alexander von Wagner|Sandor Wagner]]'s The Self Sacrifice of [[Titusz Dugovics]] (1859) (a mythical Hungarian soldier who made a heroic act of self-sacrifice during the siege)]]
=== Final battle ===
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The next day, by some accounts, the peasant crusaders started a spontaneous action, and forced Capistrano and Hunyadi to make use of the situation. Despite Hunyadi's orders to the defenders not to try to loot the Ottoman positions, some of the units crept out from demolished ramparts, took up positions across from the Ottoman line, and began harassing enemy soldiers. Ottoman [[Sipahi]]s tried without success to disperse the harassing force. At once, more defenders joined those outside the wall. What began as an isolated incident quickly escalated into a full-scale battle.
John of Capistrano at first tried to order his men back inside the walls, but soon found himself surrounded by about 2,000 peasant levymen. He then began leading them toward the Ottoman lines, crying, "The Lord who made the beginning will take care of the finish!" Capistrano led his crusaders to the Ottoman rear across the [[Sava]] river. At the same time, Hunyadi started a desperate charge out of the fort to
The Christian counter offensive managed to gain significant ground against the Ottoman troops, eventually reaching as far as the Ottoman camp<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Uzunçarşılı |first=İsmail Hakkı |title=Osmanlı Tarihi Cilt II |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu |year=2019 |isbn=9789751600127 |pages=15–18 |language=tr |trans-title=History of the Ottomans Volume II |quote=Kara tarafındaki hendeği doldurmuş olan Türk muhasara kuvvetleri şiddetli bir hücum neticesinde Belgrad'a girdikleri sırada diğer taraftan da şehrin yardımına yetişen Jan Hunyadi içeri girmiş ve iki taraf arasında şiddetli bir mücadele olmuştu. Jan Hunyadi, Türk kuvvetlerinin dağınıklığından istifade ile ansızın üzerlerine atılarak onları bozmuş ve daha sonra Osmanlı karargâhına kadar hücumu ilerletmişti; bu tehlikeli anda vezirlerden biri bir zarar gelmemesi için padişahın karargahı terk etmesini teklif etti ise de Sultan Mehmed "Düşmandan yüz döndürmek sıngın nişanıdır" yani bozgunculuk alâmetidir sözleriyle bu teklifi reddetmiş ve üzerine hücum eden üç düşmanı bizzat kendi eliyle öldürmüştür. Bu sırada cesareti artan asker ve zamanında yetişen süvari kuvvetleri mukabil taarruzla düşmanı karargahtan çıkarmağa muvaffak olmuşlardır; bu savaş esnasında Sultan Mehmed kalçasından yaralanmıştır. Fatih Sultan Mehmed'in karargaha hücum eden düşmana karşı gösterdiği sebat ve mukavemet korkunç bir bozgunu önlemiş ve sonu belki de büyük bir Haçlı Seferi vücuda getirebilecek olan tehlikeyi bertaraf etmiştir; bu mücadelede düşman da fazlaca yıpranmış olduğundan çekilmiş ve Osmanlı kuvvetleri bu seferden başarısız dönmüşlerdir.}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Mixson |first=James |title=The Crusade of 1456: Texts and Documentation in Translation |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-4875-3262-8 |pages=26 |language=en |quote=They were soon able to break through the many gaps in the walls that had been opened up by the cannons. In part their advance may have been possible because Hunyadi had deliberately withdrawn to the citadel that Stefan Lazarević had refurbished decades before. From there the garrison’s defenders launched a counterattack that drove the Ottomans from the Upper Town. The fighting among the ruined walls was fierce - as Hunyadi later recalled, in an oft-repeated line, it unfolded “not in a fortress, but in a field” - and seems to have lasted well into the next day. Mehmed and his generals soon realized that the city would not fall so easily, and they changed tactics. The sultan ordered a feigned retreat, hoping to draw the defenders out for a battle in the open field. It was a tactic Hunyadi knew well, and he ordered his troops to hold back. Capistrano’s followers, though, seem not to have known, or not to have cared. They advanced across the Sava, by some accounts under Capistrano’s direction, and began pillaging the abandoned Ottoman positions. A full counterattack soon erupted. Whether by accident or by design, the end result was the same: Belgrade’s defenders captured the Ottoman artillery positions and drove the sultan’s troops all the way back to his own tents. There, again, Mehmed himself is said by at least some accounts to have been wounded, and to have killed many with his own hands. Reinforcements soon arrived to prevent a total rout, but by nightfall the conqueror of Constantinople had been forced to retreat.}}</ref> and capturing their artillery.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> At this crucial point of the battle, one of the viziers advised Mehmed to abandon the camp for his safety, which he refused to do so on the grounds that it would be a “sign of cowardice”.<ref name=":3" /> After this, Mehmed personally joined the fighting, accompanied by two of his [[Bey|begs]].<ref name=":0" /> The Sultan managed to personally kill a number of enemy soldiers{{NoteTag|Three per [[Tursun Beg]], one per [[Laonikos Chalkokondyles]]}} before being injured, forcing him to abandon the battlefield.<ref name=":5" /> The news of their Sultan fighting alongside them caused a morale boost amongst the Ottoman army, which allowed them to go on the offensive again and push the Christian forces out of the Ottoman camp.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> The actions of the Sultan and the arrival of reinforcements had prevented a complete rout of the Ottoman army,<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> however, the army had been far too weakened to continue the siege,<ref name=":0" /> and repeated Ottoman attempts at recapturing their cannons resulted in failure.<ref name=":2" /> This led the Ottoman war council to decide on ending the siege.<ref name=":0" /> During the night of July 22 to 23, the Ottomans buried their dead according to their customs, loaded their wounded in a long row of wagons, and evacuated the camp in a hurry, heading southeast.<ref name=":2" /> The Christian forces weren't able to pursue after them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicolae |first=Jorga |title=Büyük Türk - Fatih Sultan Mehmed |publisher=Yeditepe Yayınevi |year=2018 |isbn=9786052070383 |pages=95 |language=tr}}</ref> The following day the crusader army entered the now abandoned Ottoman camp, finding immense loot left behind by the retreating Ottoman army.<ref name=":2" />
== Aftermath ==
It is claimed that
However, the Hungarians paid dearly for this victory. Plague broke out in the camp, from which [[John Hunyadi]] himself died three weeks later in Zimony, Hungary (later Zemun, Serbia) on 11 August 1456.<ref name="Tucker 2009 p. 399" /> He was buried in the Cathedral of ''Gyulafehérvár'' (now [[Alba Iulia]]), the capital of [[Transylvania]].
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[[File:Hunyadi kalemegdan.jpg|thumb|Stone in the [[Kalemegdan Park]], in Belgrade, with engraved inscription on the place where Christian forces under command of John Hunyadi won the battle against the Ottomans in 1456.]]
The victory stopped the Ottoman advance towards Europe beyond the Balkans for 70 years, though they made other incursions such as the taking of [[Otranto]] between 1480 and 1481; and the raid of [[Croatia in the union with Hungary|Croatia]] and [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]] in 1493. Belgrade would continue to protect Hungary from Ottoman attacks until the fort [[Siege of Belgrade (1521)|fell to the Ottomans in 1521]].
After the siege of Belgrade stopped the advance of Mehmed II towards Central Europe, Serbia and Bosnia were absorbed into the Empire. [[Principality of Wallachia|Wallachia]], the [[Crimean Khanate]], and eventually [[Principality of Moldavia|Moldavia]] were merely converted into vassal states due to the strong military resistance to Mehmed's attempts of conquest. There were several reasons of why the Sultan did not directly attack Hungary and why he gave up the idea of advancing in that direction after his unsuccessful siege of Belgrade. The mishap at Belgrade indicated that the Empire could not expand further until Serbia and Bosnia were transformed into a secure base of operations. Furthermore, the significant political and military power of [[Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)|Hungary]] under [[Matthias Corvinus]] in the [[Balkans|region]] surely influenced this hesitation too. Moreover, Mehmed was also distracted in his attempts to suppress insubordination from his [[Principality of Moldova|Moldovan]] and [[Principality of Wallachia|Wallachian]] vassals.
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== Literature and art ==
[[File:Battle of Nandorfehervar.jpg|thumb|Battle of Nándorfehérvár, Hungarian painting from the 19th century. In the middle, [[Giovanni da Capistrano]] with the cross in his hand.]]
▲It is claimed that, after the defeat and while he and his army were retreating into [[Ottoman Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], this sound defeat as well as the ensuing loss of no less than 24,000 of his best soldiers, angered Mehmed in such a manner that, in an uncontrollable fit of fury, he wounded a number of his generals with his own sword, just prior to their executions.<ref>{{cite book|author = Radu R Florescu|author2 = Raymond T. McNally|title = Dracula, Prince of Many Faces: His Life and His Times|isbn = 978-0-316-28655-8|year = 1989|page = [https://archive.org/details/draculaprinceofm00flor/page/80 80]| publisher=Little, Brown |url = https://archive.org/details/draculaprinceofm00flor/page/80}}</ref> The Sultan later came into conflict with [[Stephen III of Moldavia]], resulting in an even worse defeat at [[Battle of Vaslui]] and later a [[pyrrhic victory]] at the [[Battle of Valea Albă]].
==Notes==
▲An English poet and playwright [[Hannah Brand]] wrote five-act tragedy about the battle and siege of Belgrade, which was first performed in 1791.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hüttler |first1= Michael |year=2013 |title=Theatre and Cultural Memory: The siege of Belgrade on Stage |journal=Open Access Research Journal for Theatre, Music, Arts |volume=2 |issue=1/2 |pages=1–13 }}</ref> A fictional account from the viewpoint of a Christian mercenary is [[Christian Cameron]], ''Tom Swan and the Siege of Belgrade'' from 2014 to 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://christiancameronauthor.com/2015/03/12/the-siege-of-belgrade-1456-or-why-is-history-so-complicated/ |title=The Siege of Belgrade 1456, or why is history so complicated? |date=March 25, 2015 |website=christiancameronauthor.com |access-date= August 24, 2020}}</ref>
{{NoteFoot}}
== References ==
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=== Bibliography ===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Andrić|first=Stanko|title=Saint John Capistran and Despot George Branković: An Impossible Compromise|journal=Byzantinoslavica|year=2016|volume=74|issue=1–2|pages=202–227|url=https://www.academia.edu/34480630}}▼
* {{cite book|title = History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey, Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280–1808|author = Stanford J. Shaw|isbn = 978-0-521-29163-7|year = 1976|url-access = registration|url = https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan}}▼
* {{cite book|title = The Medieval Military Revolution: State, Society and Military Change in Medieval and Early Modern Society|author = Andrew Ayton|author2 = Leslie Price|url = http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/ayton1.htm|access-date = October 1, 2010|publisher = I.B. Tauris|location = London|year = 1998|isbn = 1-86064-353-1|archive-date = November 12, 2010|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101112045107/http://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/ARTICLES/ayton1.htm|url-status = dead}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ćirković|first=Sima|author-link=Sima Ćirković|year=2004|title=The Serbs|location=Malden|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wc-DWRzoeIC}}
* {{cite book|title = A History of Venice|author = John Julius Norwich|publisher = Alfred B. Knopf|location = New York|series = Lecture Notes in Mathematics 1358|year = 1982|isbn = 0-679-72197-5}}
* {{cite book | last1=Muresanu | first1=C. | last2=Treptow | first2=L. | title=John Hunyadi: Defender of Christendom | publisher=Histria Books | year=2018 | isbn=978-1-59211-115-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4BAjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3}}▼
* {{cite book|title = The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: From Lyons to Alcazar|author = Norman Housley|isbn=978-0-19-822136-4|edition= |year = 1992| publisher=Oxford University Press }}▼
▲* {{cite book|title = History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey, Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280–1808|author = Stanford J. Shaw|isbn = 978-0-521-29163-7|year = 1976|url-access = registration|url = https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan}}
▲* {{
* {{Cite book|last=Housley|first=Norman|title=Religious Warfare in Europe 1400-1536|year=2002|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QYdZlGcNpQC}}
* {{Cite book|last=Housley|first=Norman|title=Crusading and the Ottoman Threat, 1453–1505|year=2012|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Wcwc3PEKZMC}}
* {{cite book|title=The history of modern Europe: From the fall of Constantinople|author=Thomas Henry Dyer|page=[https://archive.org/details/historymoderneu02dyergoog/page/n123 85]|url=https://archive.org/details/historymoderneu02dyergoog|quote=Noon bell belgrade.|year=1861|publisher=J. Murray}}
* {{The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571|volume=3}}
▲* {{Cite journal|last=Andrić|first=Stanko|title=Saint John Capistran and Despot George Branković: An Impossible Compromise|journal=Byzantinoslavica|year=2016|volume=74|issue=1–2|pages=202–227|url=https://www.academia.edu/34480630}}
* {{cite book|title=History of the Development of the Devotion to the Holy Name|author=Peter R. Biasiotto|year=1943}}
* {{cite book | last1=Visy | first1=Zsolt| title=Visy, Zsolt: A déli harangszó Magyarországon és a nagyvilágban – The Noon Bellin Hungary and the world| publisher= Professzorok Batthyány Köre – GeniaNet kiadó | year=2024 | isbn=978-615-5687-08-2 | url=https://got.genianet.com/free-books/37-ujkor/84-visy-zsolt-a-deli-harangszo-magyarorszagon-es-a-nagyvilagban-the-noon-bell-in-hungary-and-the-world/243-visy-zsolt-a-deli-harangszo-magyarorszagon-es-a-nagyvilagban-the-noon-bell-in-hungary-and-the-world}}
▲* {{cite book | last1=Muresanu | first1=C. | last2=Treptow | first2=L. | title=John Hunyadi: Defender of Christendom | publisher=Histria Books | year=2018 | isbn=978-1-59211-115-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4BAjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3}}
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