Editing Al-Rahba

{{short description|Ruined castle in Syria}}
{{about|the medieval fortress in Syria|the municipality in Lebanon|Rahbeh}}
{{Good article}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
|name                = Al-Rahba
|native_name         = 
|location            = [[Mayadin]], [[Deir ez-Zor Governorate|Dayr az-Zawr Governorate]], [[Syria]]
|image               = Qalat Rahbeh 1.jpg
|caption             = The ruins of the al-Rahba fortress, 2005
|map_type            = Syria#West Asia 
|map_relief          = yes
|coordinates         = {{coord|35.005|40.4235|type:landmark|display=inline}}
|map_size            = 250
|type                = [[Concentric castle]]
|built               = Second half of 9th century (first construction)<br>Mid-12th century (second reconstruction)<br>1207 (third construction)
|builder             = [[Malik ibn Tawk]] (first construction)<br>[[Shirkuh]] (second construction)<br>[[Al-Mujahid|Shirkuh II]] (third construction)
|controlledby        = 
|open_to_public      = 
|materials           = [[Limestone]], [[mudbrick]], [[gypsum]], [[puddingstone (rock)|puddingstone]]
|length              = {{convert|270x95|m|ft|sp=us}}
|height              = 
|used                = 
|ownership           = 
|condition           = Ruined
|battles             = 
}}

'''Al-Rahba''' (/[[ALA-LC]]: ''al-Raḥba'', sometimes spelled ''Raḥabah''), also known as '''Qal'at al-Rahba''', which translates as the "Citadel of al-Rahba", is a medieval Arab fortress on the west bank of the [[Euphrates River]], adjacent to the city of [[Mayadin]] in [[Syria]]. Situated atop a [[mound]] with an elevation of {{convert|244|m|ft|sp=us}}, al-Rahba oversees the [[Syrian Desert]] steppe. It has been described as "a fortress within a fortress"; it consists of an inner [[keep]] measuring {{convert|60x30|m|ft|sp=us}}, protected by an enclosure measuring {{convert|270x95|m|ft|sp=us}}. Al-Rahba is largely in ruins today as a result of [[wind erosion]].

The original site, which was known as "Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk" after its [[Malik ibn Tawk|Abbasid namesake and founder]], was located along the Euphrates. It was viewed by Muslim armies, caravans and travelers as the key to Syria from Iraq and sometimes vice versa. [[Bedouin]] tribes often took control of it and used it as a launching point for invasions of northern Syria. Because of its strategic location, al-Rahba was frequently fought over by Muslim powers, including local lords, the [[Hamdanid dynasty|Hamdanids]], the [[Uqaylid dynasty|Uqaylids]], the [[Mirdasid dynasty|Mirdasids]] and the [[Seljuks]], among others. Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk was destroyed in an [[1157 Hama earthquake|earthquake in 1157]].

A few years later, the current fortress was built close to the desert edge by the [[Zengid dynasty|Zengid]]–[[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] lord [[Shirkuh]]. The latter's descendants held al-Rahba as a hereditary fief granted by [[Saladin]] until 1264. One of them, [[al-Mujahid|Shirkuh II]], oversaw a third major reconstruction in 1207. Through the early [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] era (late 13th–14th centuries), the fortress was continuously restored and strengthened as a result of frequent sieges by the [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanid Mongols]] of Iraq. Al-Rahba was the most important Mamluk fortress along the Euphrates, an administrative center and the terminal stop on the sultanate's postal route. It fell into disuse during [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule (1517–1918) and from then until the early 20th century, the fortress primarily served as a shelter for local shepherds and their flocks. Excavations were carried out at the site between 1976 and 1981.

==Location and etymology==
Throughout Islamic history, al-Rahba was considered, in the words of the 14th-century traveler [[Ibn Batuta]], "the end of Iraq and the beginning of al-Sham [Syria]".<ref name="Bianquis395">Bianquis 1995, p. 395.</ref> The fortress is located about {{convert|4|km|mi|sp=us}} southwest of the [[Euphrates River]], {{convert|1|km|mi|sp=us}} southwest of the modern Syrian city of [[Mayadin]],<ref name="Bianquis395"/><ref name="Burns238">{{cite book|last1=Burns|first1=Ross|title=Monuments of Syria: A Guide|date=1992|publisher=I. B. Tauris and Company, Limited|location=New York|isbn=978-1-84511-947-8|page=238|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA238}}</ref><ref name="Bylinski159">Bylinski 2004, p. 159.</ref> and {{convert|42|km|mi|sp=us}} southeast of [[Deir ez-Zor|Dayr az-Zawr]], capital of the [[Deir ez-Zor Governorate|Dayr az-Zawr Governorate]], of which al-Rahba is part.<ref name="BeawesCarruthers6">{{cite book|last1=Beawes|first1=William|editor1-last=Carruthers|editor1-first=Douglas|editor-link=Douglas Carruthers|title=The Desert Route to India: Being the Journals of Four Travellers by the Great Desert Caravan Route between Aleppo and Basra, 1745–1751|date=1929|publisher=Hakluyt Society|location=London|page=6, n. 4|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QcpZz402GcwC&pg=PA6|chapter=Remarks and Occurrences in a Journey from Aleppo to Bassora by the way of the Desert|isbn=9788120611917 }}</ref> According to the 13th-century geographer [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]], the site's name, ''al-raḥba'', translates from Arabic as the "flat part of a wadi, where the water collects"; al-Rahba's original location was on the western bank of the Euphrates.<ref name="Bianquis393">Bianquis 1995, p. 393.</ref> The current fortress is situated on an artificial mound detached from the plateau of the [[Syrian Desert]] to its west.<ref name="Bylinski159"/> Its elevation is {{convert|244|m|ft|sp=us}} above sea level.<ref name="Burns238"/>

==History==

===Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk===

====Founding====
[[File:Castle Rahba.JPG|thumb|The fortress of al-Rahba as seen from the city of [[Mayadin]]]]
According to historian [[Thierry Bianquis]], "Hardly anything definite is known about the history of the town [al-Rahba] before the Muslim era."<ref name="Bianquis393"/> Medieval [[Talmud]]ic and [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac]] writers (such as [[Michael the Syrian]] and [[Bar Hebraeus]]) identified it with the Biblical town of [[Rehoboth (Bible)|Rehobot han-Nahar]] ("Rehobot by the river [Euphrates]").<ref name="Bianquis393"/> Some medieval Muslim historians, among them [[al-Tabari]], have written that it was a place called "Furda" or "Furdat Nu'm", named after a monastery that supposedly existed in its vicinity called "Dayr Nu'm".<ref name="Bianquis393"/> However, the 9th-century [[Persian people|Persian]] historian [[al-Baladhuri]] asserts that there was "no trace that ar-Rahba&nbsp;... was an old city",<ref name="Bianquis393"/><ref name="Hitti281">{{cite book|last1=Hitti|first1=Philip K.|title=The Origins of the Islamic State, Being a Translation from the Arabic, Accompanied with Annotations, Geographic and Historic Notes of the Kitâb Fitûh Al-buldân of Al-Imâm Abu-l Abbâs Ahmad Ibn-Jâbir Al-Balâdhuri, Volume 1|date=1916|publisher=Longmans, Green and Company|location=London|page=281|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5oJMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA281}}</ref> and that it was first founded by the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] general [[Malik ibn Tawk]] during the reign of Caliph [[al-Ma'mun]] (813–833 CE).<ref name="Burns238"/><ref name="Bianquis393"/><ref name="Hitti281"/> As such, the fortress town was often referred to as "Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk" by Muslim historians.<ref name="Bianquis393"/> According to Syrian historian Suhayl Zakkar, al-Rahba held significant strategic value as it was "the key to Syria and sometimes to Iraq" and it was the first stop for Syria-bound caravans coming from Iraq.<ref name="Zakkar90">Zakkar 1971, p. 90.</ref> From al-Rahba, travelers, caravans and armies could proceed northwestward along the Euphrates route to [[Aleppo]] or traverse the desert route to [[Damascus]].<ref name="Zakkar90"/> Because of its strategic value, it was frequently fought over by rival Muslim powers.<ref name="Zakkar90"/> [[Bedouin]] tribes in particular used al-Rahba as a main launch point for invasions of northern Syria, and as a safe haven and marketplace.<ref name="Zakkar90"/> Malik ibn Tawk served as its first lord, and after his death in 873, he was succeeded by his son Ahmad.<ref name="Bianquis394">Bianquis 1995, p. 394.</ref> The latter was expelled following al-Rahba's capture in 883 by the Abbasid lord of [[Anbar (town)|al-Anbar]], [[Muhammad ibn Abi'l-Saj]].<ref name="Bianquis394"/> By the 10th century, al-Rahba had become a large town.<ref name="Ashtor88">Ashtor 1976, p. 88.</ref>

In 903, the [[Qarmatians|Qarmatian]] leader [[al-Husayn ibn Zikrawayh]] was imprisoned in al-Rahba before being transferred to Caliph [[al-Mustakfi]]'s custody in Raqqa.<ref>Halm 1996, p. 86.</ref> At the time, al-Rahba was the center of the Euphrates province and headquarters of its governor, Ibn Sima.<ref>Halm 1996, p. 186.</ref> Al-Husayn was executed, prompting his partisans from the Banu Ullays tribe to submit to Ibn Sima in al-Rahba in early 904.<ref name="Halm184">Halm 1996, p. 184.</ref> However, shortly after, they turned against Ibn Sima, whose forces routed them in an ambush in al-Rahba's environs in August.<ref name="Halm184"/> Following further battles, Ibn Sima received another round of surrenders by Qarmatian chieftains and ''[[da'i]]s'' ([[Ismailism|Ismaili]] religious leaders).<ref>Halm 1996, p. 190.</ref> In March 928, the Qarmatians under [[Abu Tahir al-Jannabi]] conquered al-Rahba and massacred scores of its inhabitants during their [[Qarmatian invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]].<ref name="Bianquis394"/> Its residents faced hardships for several more years due to civil strife in the surrounding region.<ref name="Bianquis394"/> Peace was established in 942 with the arrival of an Abbasid commander named Adl who was dispatched by [[Bajkam]], the strongman of the [[Baghdad]]-based caliphate.<ref name="Bianquis394"/> Adl subsequently became governor of the Euphrates and [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]] valley regions.<ref name="Bianquis394"/>

====Hamdanid period====
Al-Rahba came under [[Hamdanid dynasty|Hamdanid]] rule a few years later, becoming part of the Euphrates district (''tariq al-Furat'') of the [[Mosul]]-based emirate.<ref name="Bianquis396">Bianquis 1995, p. 396.</ref> At the time, the town was described by the Persian geographer [[Estakhri|al-Istakhri]], as being larger than the ancient [[Circesium]] on the opposite side of the Euphrates.<ref name="Bianquis395"/> The lord of al-Rahba, Jaman, rebelled against the Hamdanid emir of Mosul, [[Nasir al-Dawla]] ({{reign|929|968/9}}).<ref name="Bianquis394"/> Jaman fled the town and drowned in the Euphrates, but not before al-Rahba was heavily damaged in the rebellion's suppression.<ref name="Bianquis394"/> Nasir al-Dawla granted his favored son, Abu'l-Muzzafar Hamdan, control of al-Rahba, its district of [[Diyar Mudar]], and the district's revenues.<ref>''Islamic Culture'' January 1998, p. 19.</ref>

Nasir al-Dawla's sons contested control of al-Rahba in the aftermath of their father's deposition in 969.<ref name="Bianquis394"/> It ultimately passed to his son [[Abu Taghlib]] when his brother and subordinate commander, Hibat-Allah, captured it from Hamdan in a surprise attack.<ref name="Bianquis394"/><ref>''Islamic Culture'' January 1998, p. 31.</ref> Abu Taghlib had al-Rahba's walls rebuilt.<ref name="Bianquis394"/> He restored al-Rahba to Hamdan to preempt the possibility of his [[Buyid dynasty|Buyid]] enemy, [[Izz al-Dawla|Izz al-Dawla al-Bakhtiyar]], forming an alliance with Hamdan to undermine Abu Taghlib.<ref>''Islamic Culture'' January 1998, p. 56.</ref> The Hamdanids lost control of al-Rahba in 978, after which it was captured by the Buyid emir [['Adud al-Dawla]] ({{reign|949|983}}).<ref name="Bianquis394"/> In 991, al-Rahba's inhabitants requested and received a governor assigned by 'Adud's son, Emir [[Baha' al-Dawla]] ({{reign|988|1012}}).<ref name="Bianquis394"/> The town was described by [[Jerusalem]]ite geographer [[al-Muqaddasi]] in the late 10th century as being the center of the Euphrates district, located on the edge of the desert, having a semi-circular layout and being defended by a strong fortress.<ref name="Bianquis395"/> He also noted that the wider vicinity was characterized by highly irrigated and productive lands, with abundant date palms and [[quince]] groves.<ref name="Bianquis395"/>

====Uqaylid and Mirdasid period====
In the early 11th century, control of al-Rahba was contested between the [[Uqaylid dynasty|Uqaylids]] of [[Mosul]] and the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]]s of [[Egypt]].<ref name="Bianquis394"/><ref name="Ashtor187">Ashtor 1976, p. 187.</ref> Preceding this conflict, the Fatimid caliph [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|al-Hakim]] appointed a member of the [[Khafaja|Al Khafajah]] tribe, [[Abu Ali ibn Thimal]], as lord of al-Rahba.<ref name="Zakkar88">Zakkar 1971, p. 88.</ref> Abu Ali was killed in 1008/09 during a battle with his Uqaylid rivals led by Isa ibn Khalat.<ref name="Bianquis394"/> The latter lost al-Rahba to another Uqaylid emir, [[Badran ibn al-Muqallad]].<ref name="Bianquis394"/> The latter's victory was short-lived as the Fatimid emir of Damascus, Lu'lu, soon captured both al-Rahba and [[Raqqa]], a fortified city to the northwest.<ref name="Bianquis394"/> He appointed a governor for al-Rahba and returned to Damascus.<ref name="Zakkar88"/>

A wealthy resident of al-Rahba,<ref name="Ashtor187"/> Ibn Mahkan, revolted against the Fatimids and took control of the town shortly after Lu'lu departed.<ref name="Zakkar88"/> Though able to oust the Fatimid governor, Ibn Mahkan was unable to hold the town without outside support since al-Rahba was located amid the crossroads of several regional powers who coveted the town.<ref name="Zakkar88"/> Thus, he gained the backing of the [[Mirdasid dynasty|Mirdasid]] emir of the [[Banu Kilab]] tribe, [[Salih ibn Mirdas]].<ref name="Bianquis394"/><ref name="Ashtor187"/> Conflict arose between Ibn Mahkan and Salih leading the latter to besiege al-Rahba.<ref name="Ashtor187"/> The two reconciled and then Ibn Mahkan and his men captured the fortified town of [[Anah]] in [[Anbar (town)|Anbar]].<ref name="Ashtor187"/> However, when Ibn Mahkan sought Salih's support in suppressing a revolt in Anah, the latter used the opportunity to kill Ibn Mahkan.<ref name="Bianquis394"/><ref name="Ashtor187"/>

After eliminating Ibn Mahkan, Salih became the lord of al-Rahba,<ref name="Bianquis394"/><ref name="Ashtor187"/> and made his allegiance with the Fatimids.<ref name="Zakkar89">Zakkar 1971, p. 89.</ref> Al-Rahba was the first major territory Salih held and was the touchstone of the emirate he would establish in Aleppo and much of northern Syria.<ref name="Zakkar89"/><ref>Amabe 2016, p. 60.</ref> His son [[Mu'izz al-Dawla Thimal|Thimal]] later succeeded him as emir of Aleppo, and al-Rahba became his principal power base from which many of his [[vizier]]s originated.<ref>Amabe 2016, p. 67.</ref> He was later compelled by the Fatimids to hand over al-Rahba to their ally [[Al-Basasiri|Arslan al-Basasiri]], a Turkish general who revolted against his [[Seljuq Empire|Seljuk]] masters and the Abbasid Caliphate.<ref name="Zakkar149">Zakkar 1971, pp. 149–150.</ref> The ceding of al-Rahba to al-Basasiri was the first step in Thimal's loss of the Mirdasid emirate.<ref name="Zakkar149"/> Together with the loss of Raqqa, it provoked dissension within the Banu Kilab, with Thimal's brother [[Atiyya ibn Salih|Atiyya]] resolving to restore the Mirdasid emirate.<ref name="Zakkar149"/> Al-Basasiri's revolt ultimately failed and he was killed in 1059, prompting Atiyya to capture al-Rahba in April 1060.<ref>Zakkar 1971, p. 155.</ref> Later, in August 1061, Atiyya successfully defended al-Rahba from [[Numayrid dynasty|Numayrid]] advances.<ref>Zakkar 1971, p. 163.</ref>

The Mirdasids lost al-Rahba in 1067 to the Uqaylid emir, [[Muslim ibn Quraysh|Sharaf ad-Dawla]],<ref name="Zakkar170">Zakkar 1971, p. 170.</ref><ref>Ibn al-Athir, ed. Richards 2010, p. 163.</ref> a vassal of the Abbasid-affiliated Seljuks. Beforehand, Atiyya and part of his army had been in [[Homs]], allowing Sharaf ad-Dawla the opportunity to rout al-Rahba's Banu Kilab defenders.<ref name="Zakkar170"/> Afterward, the name of the Abbasid caliph was read in the town's ''[[khutba]]'' (Friday prayer sermons) instead of the Fatimids, a formal recognition of al-Rahba's change of allegiance.{{sfn|Bianquis|1993|p=120}} In 1086, the Seljuk sultan [[Malik-Shah I|Malik-Shah]] granted al-Rahba and its Upper Mesopotamian dependencies, [[Harran]], Raqqa, [[Saruj]] and Khabur, to Sharaf ad-Dawla's son, Muhammad.<ref name="Bianquis394"/><ref>Ibn al-Athir, ed. Richards 2010, p. 229.</ref>

====Seljuk period====
At some point the Seljuks or their [[Arab]] allies lost al-Rahba, but in 1093 the Seljuk ruler of Damascus, [[Tutush I|Tutush]] captured it along with several other Upper Mesopotamian towns.<ref>Başan 2010, p. 99.</ref> Following his death, possession of al-Rahba reverted to the Uqaylids,<ref>Başan 2010, p. 38.</ref> but in 1096, [[Kerbogha|Karbuqa]] of [[al-Hillah]] captured and looted the town.<ref name="Bianquis394"/> He held onto it until 1102 when Qaymaz, a former ''[[mamluk]]'' (slave soldier) of the Seljuk sultan [[Alp Arslan]], took control of it.<ref name="Bianquis394"/> Tutush's son [[Duqaq (Seljuk ruler of Damascus)|Duqaq]] and the latter's deputy [[Toghtekin|Tughtakin]] besieged the town, but failed to capture it.<ref name="Athir73">Ibn al-Athir, ed. Richards 2010, pp. 72–73.</ref> Qaymaz died in December 1102 and al-Rahba passed to one of his Turkish ''mamluks'' named Hasan,<ref name="Bianquis394"/><ref name="Athir73"/> who dismissed many of Qaymaz's officers and arrested several of al-Rahba's notables due to suspicions of a coup against him.<ref name="Athir73"/> Duqaq renewed the siege, but this time was welcomed in by al-Rahba's townspeople, forcing Hasan to retreat into the citadel. Hasan surrendered after receiving guarantees of safe passage from Duqaq as well as an ''[[iqta]]'' (fief) elsewhere in Syria.<ref name="Athir73"/> According to the 12th-century chronicler [[Ibn al-Athir]], al-Rahba's inhabitants were treated well by Duqaq, who reorganized the administration of the town, established a garrison there,<ref name="Athir73"/> and assigned to it a governor from the [[Banu Shayban]] tribe, Muhammad ibn Sabbak.<ref name="Bianquis394"/>

Jawali, a general of the Seljuk sultan [[Muhammad I (Seljuq sultan)|Muhammad I]], conquered al-Rahba from Ibn Sabbak in May 1107, after a month-long siege.<ref>Başan 2010, pp. 116.</ref><ref name="Athir116">Ibn al-Athir, ed. Richards 2010, pp. 115–116.</ref> Ibn al-Athir recorded that al-Rahba's inhabitants suffered greatly during the siege and that some townsmen informed Jawali of a weak point in the fortress's defense in return for promises of safety.<ref name="Athir116"/> When Jawali entered the town and sacked it, Ibn Sabbak surrendered and joined Jawali's service.<ref name="Athir116"/>

In 1127, the Seljuk lord of Mosul, Izz ad-Din Mas'ud ibn al-Bursuqi besieged and conquered al-Rahba as part of an attempted invasion of Syria.<ref>Ibn al-Athir, ed. Richards 2010, p. 268.</ref> However, he fell ill and died there shortly after. His lordship in Mosul was taken by [[Imad ad-Din Zengi]], while al-Rahba was left under the control of al-Bursuqi's ''mamluk'', al-Jawali, who ruled it as a subordinate of Zengi.<ref name="Bianquis395"/> Zengi's son [[Qutb ad-Din Mawdud|Qutb ad-Din]] captured al-Rahba some years later.<ref name="Bianquis395"/> In 1149, Qutb ad-Din's brother [[Nur ad-Din, atabeg of Aleppo|Nur ad-Din]] received al-Rahba in Seljuk-sponsored negotiations between the [[Zengid dynasty|Zengid]] lords.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Elisséeff|first1=N.|editor1-last=Heinrichs|editor1-first=W. P.|title=The Encyclopedia of Islam, Volume 6|date=1991|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=90-04-08112-7|page=870|edition=2nd|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PvwUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA870|chapter=Mawdud b. Imad al-Din Zanki}}</ref>

===Al-Rahba al-Jadida===

====Ayyubid period====
[[File:Governor of Rahba. Maqamat of al-Hariri, Baghdad 1237.jpg|thumb|The Governor of al-Rahba. ''[[Maqamat of al-Hariri]]'', Baghdad, 1237.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ettinghausen |first1=Richard |title=Arab painting |date=1977 |publisher=New York : Rizzoli |isbn=978-0-8478-0081-0 |pages=114-115 |url=https://archive.org/details/arabpainting0000etti/page/114/mode/2up}}</ref>]]
Al-Rahba was destroyed in an [[1157 Hama earthquake|earthquake in 1157]].<ref name="Bianquis395"/> Four years later, Nur ad-Din granted the territories of al-Rahba and Homs as a fief to [[Shirkuh]], who had a certain Yusuf ibn Mallah administer it on his behalf.<ref name="Bianquis395"/> According to the 14th-century Ayyubid historian, [[Abu'l-Fida]], Shirkuh rebuilt al-Rahba.<ref name="Bylinski159"/> Abu'l-Fida's assertion may have been incorrect or the fortress built by Shirkuh fell into a ruinous state at some point before the century's end.<ref name="Bylinski159"/> In any case, the new fortress, which became known as "al-Rahba al-Jadida", was relocated about five kilometers west of the Euphrates' western bank, where the original site, "Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk", had been situated.<ref name="Bianquis395"/><ref name="Bylinski159"/> When Shirkuh died, his territories reverted to Nur ad-Din.<ref name="Major62">{{cite book|last1=Major|first1=Balasz|editor1-last=Hunyadi|editor1-first=Zsolt|editor2-last=Laszlovszky|editor2-first=Jószef|title=The Crusades and the Military Orders: Expanding the Frontiers of Medieval Latin Christianity|date=2001|publisher=Department of Medieval Studies, Central European University|location=Budapest|isbn=963-9241-42-3|page=62|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1m4fbJyQ4pkC&pg=PA62|chapter=Al-Malik Al-Mujahid, Ruler of Homs, and the Hospitallers (The Evidence in the Chronicle of Ibn Wasil)}}</ref> However, Shirkuh's nephew and the founder of the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid Sultanate]],  [[Saladin]], conquered Nur ad-Din's domains by 1182 and granted Homs and al-Rahba to Shirkuh's son, [[Muhammad ibn Shirkuh|Nasir ad-Din Muhammad]], as a hereditary emirate.<ref name="Major62"/>

According to the Ayyubid-era chronicler and one-time resident of al-Rahba, [[Ibn Nazif]], the fortress of al-Rahba was rebuilt again by Shirkuh's grandson, [[al-Mujahid|al-Mujahid Shirkuh II]] ({{reign|1186|1240}}), in 1207.<ref name="Burns238"/><ref name="Bylinski159"/><ref name="Bylinski1999-162">Bylinski 1999, p. 162.</ref> Al-Rahba was the easternmost fortress of Shirkuh II's Homs-based emirate, and was one of the four principal centers of the emirate, the other three being Homs itself, [[Salamiyah]] and [[Palmyra]].<ref name="Bylinski1999-162"/> He personally oversaw the demolition of al-Rahba's ruins and the construction of the new fortress.<ref name="Bylinski1999-162"/> Al-Rahba remained in the hands of Shirkuh's descendants until a few years after the annexation of Ayyubid Syria by the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] in 1260.<ref name="Bianquis395"/>

====Mamluk period====
In 1264, the Mamluk sultan [[Baybars]] ({{reign|1260|1277}}) replaced the Ayyubid governor of al-Rahba with one of his ''mamluk'' officers from Egypt.<ref name="Bianquis395"/> Al-Rahba's garrison and its commander held a high place in the Mamluk military hierarchy.<ref name="Bianquis396"/> The fortress, along with and [[Birecik|al-Bira]] to the north, emerged as the principal Mamluk bulwark against Mongol invasions of Syria's eastern frontier.<ref>Amitai-Preisse 1995, p. 77.</ref> It was the Mamluks' most important fortress along the Euphrates, supplanting Raqqa, which had been the traditional Muslim center in the Euphrates valley since the 10th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ziadeh|first1=Nicola A.|title=Urban Life in Syria Under the Early Mamluks|date=1953|publisher=Greenwood Press|page=57|isbn=9780837131627 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ucBAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> A large population of refugees from areas ruled by the Mongols settled in al-Rahba as did many people from the adjacent, unfortified town of Mashhad al-Rahba (former site of Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk, modern-day [[Mayadin]]).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nicolle|first1=David|title=Saracen Strongholds 1100–1500: The Central and Eastern Islamic Lands|date=2009|page=39|publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=Botley|isbn=978-1-84603-375-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XshAEMLqzmAC&pg=PA39}}</ref> It was also the terminal stop of the Mamluk ''barid'' (postal route) and an administrative center.<ref>Amitai-Preisse 1995, p. 75.</ref>

Throughout the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, al-Rahba was situated near the tribal territory of the [[Al Fadl]].<ref>Amitai-Preiss 1995, p. 64.</ref> About four hundred Al Fadl tribesmen joined the small army of Caliph [[al-Mustansir Billah|al-Mustansir]], the Egypt-based Abbasid caliph dispatched by Baybars to recapture Baghdad from the Mongols, when he reached al-Rahba.<ref name="Amitai58">Amitai-Preiss 1995, pp. 57–58.</ref> The latter was al-Mustansir's first stop after he rode out from Damascus, but his campaign ultimately failed and he was killed in a Mongol ambush in al-Anbar.<ref name="Amitai58"/> The Mongols of [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanid Iraq]] inflicted significant damage on al-Rahba during their [[Mongol invasions of the Levant|wars with the Mamluks]].<ref name="Bylinski159"/> The fortress was restored by Baybars at some point toward the end of his reign.<ref name="Bylinski159"/> In 1279, the Mamluk viceroy of Syria, [[Sunqur al-Ashqar]], rebelled against Sultan [[Qalawun]] ({{reign|1279|1290}}) and took refuge with the Al Fadl chieftain, [[Isa ibn Muhanna]], at al-Rahba, where he requested the intervention of the Mongol ruler [[Abaqa Khan]].<ref name="Bianquis394"/> When the Mongols could not help him, Sunqur fled the incoming Mamluk army, while Isa barricaded himself in the fortress.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tritton|first1=A. S.|title=The Tribes of Syria in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|date=1948|volume=12|issue=3/4|page=568|jstor=608712|doi=10.1017/s0041977x00083129|s2cid=161392172 }}</ref> The Mongols' failure to [[Siege of Al-Rahba|capture al-Rahba after a month-long siege]] commanded by the Ilkhanid ruler [[Öljaitü]] in 1312/13 marked the Ilkhanate's final attempt to invade Mamluk Syria.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stewart|first1=Angus Donal|title=The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and Diplomacy During the Reigns of Hetʻum II (1289–1307)|date=2001|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=90-04-12292-3|page=181|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tlgRqLA0EHsC&pg=PA181}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Broadbridge|first1=Anne F.|title=Kingship and Ideology in the Islamic and Mongol Worlds|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-521-85265-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxOcXC85tnQC&pg=PA96}}</ref> Isa's son [[Muhanna ibn Isa|Muhanna]] rebelled against Sultan [[an-Nasir Muhammad]] ({{reign|1310|1341}}) in 1320, and was pursued by the Mamluk army as far al-Rahba.<ref name="Bianquis394"/> During the ensuing confrontation, the fortress may have been destroyed.<ref name="Bianquis394"/>

====Ottoman era====
Under the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], who conquered Syria and Iraq in the early 16th century, al-Rahba's military use apparently diminished.<ref name="Bianquis396"/> During the Middle Ages, the road between Palmyra and al-Rahba was the most important Syrian desert route, but its importance declined during Ottoman rule.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Grant|first1=Christina Phelps|title=The Syrian Desert: Caravans, Travel and Exploration|date=2003|publisher=Kegan Paul International|isbn=0-7103-0845-0|page=40|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4d-3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40}}</ref> From then on, al-Rahba was mostly used as a shelter for shepherds from nearby villages and their flocks.<ref name="Bianquis396"/> In 1588, it was visited by the [[Venice|Venetian]] traveler [[Gasparo Balbi]], who noted a dilapidated fortress and inhabitants known as "Rahabi" living below it.<ref name="Bianquis395"/> The French traveler, [[Jean-Baptiste Tavernier]], mentioned Mashhad Rahba, {{convert|9.7|km|mi}} southwest of the fortress, during his travels there in circa 1632.<ref name="Bianquis395"/> The town did serve as the centre of the Ottoman ''sancak'' (province) of Deyr-Rahbe, which also encompassed [[Deir ez-Zor]]. For much of the sixteenth to eighteenth century, it was held by emirs of the Al Abu Risha, descendants of the Al Fadl emirs, who were appointed both as Ottoman governors and as ''çöl beyi''s (desert emirs).<ref>{{cite book|first=Stefan|last=Winter|editor1-first=Stefan|editor1-last=Winter|editor2-first=Mafalda|editor2-last=Ade|title=Aleppo and its Hinterland in the Ottoman Period / Alep et sa province à l'époque ottomane|chapter=Alep et l'émirat du désert (çöl beyligi) au XVIIe-XVIIIe siècle|year=2019|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-37902-2|url=https://brill.com/view/title/38977}}pp. 86-108</ref> In 1797, French traveler [[Guillaume-Antoine Olivier]] passed by al-Rahba, mentioning that it was a fortress and a ruined site.<ref name="BeawesCarruthers6"/>

==Excavations==
The fortress has deteriorated considerably as a result of erosion.<ref name="Bianquis396"/> Excavations were carried out at al-Rahba, including the presumed site of Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk along the Euphrates bank, between 1976 and 1981 under the auspices of Syria's [[Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums|General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums]], the [[Institut français du Proche-Orient|Institut Français d'Etudes Arabes de Damas]] and the [[Lumière University Lyon 2|University of Lyon II]].<ref name="Bianquis395"/> In later years, surveys of the site and the surrounding desert and Euphrates and [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]] valleys were carried out by multi-disciplinary teams of Syrian, American and European archaeologists.<ref>Bianquis 1995, pp. 395–396.</ref> One of the French surveyors, J. L. Paillet, sketched the plans and elevations of the fortress,<ref name="Bianquis396"/> which are detailed in his 1983 dissertation, ''Le château de Rahba, étude d'architecture militaire islamique médiévale''.<ref name="Bylinski159"/><ref name="Bianquis396"/>

Excavations at the foot of the fortress between 1976 and 1978 revealed a medieval settlement within a quadrangular enclosure, some of whose walls measured up to {{convert|30|m|ft|sp=us}} long and {{convert|4|m|ft|sp=us}} high.<ref name="Bianquis396"/> The walls generally have a thickness of {{convert|1|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name="Bianquis396"/> Among the unearthed structures were the probable remains of a ''khan'' ([[caravanserai]]), a [[Jama Masjid|congregational mosque]] with a small [[oratory (worship)|oratory]], and a cavalry [[barracks]].<ref name="Bianquis396"/> There was also a system of canals that brought in fresh water and emptied sewage.<ref name="Bianquis396"/> Among the artifacts found at the fortress and the former settlement beneath it were pottery [[sherd]]s and coins (mostly Mamluk and a few Ayyubid) and numerous [[fletching|feather fletches]] belonging to arrows left over by Mongol besiegers.<ref name="Bianquis396"/> During the ongoing [[Syrian Civil War]], looting and illegal digging for antiquities have occurred at al-Rahba.<ref name="HFP">{{cite web|last1=Badran|first1=A.|title=Damage to Syria's Heritage: 08 May 2014|url=http://www.heritageforpeace.org/syria-culture-and-heritage/damage-to-cultural-heritage/previous-damage-newsletters/damage-to-syrias-heritage-08-may-2014/#mctoc13|website=Heritage For Peace|access-date=2016-05-14}}</ref> Affected areas include the fortress's storage rooms and courtyards, as well as the medieval settlement at its foot.<ref name="HFP"/>

==Architecture==

===Specifications and components===
The citadel of al-Rahba is described by historian Janusz Bylinski as "a fortress within a fortress".<ref name="Bylinski162">Bylinski 2004, p. 162.</ref> Its core consists of a four-story, pentagon-shaped [[keep]], roughly measuring {{convert|60x30|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name="Burns238"/> The keep is enclosed by a pentagon-shaped wall, roughly measuring {{convert|270x95|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name="Bylinski159"/> The outer wall's shape was described by Paillet as a triangle with its two parallel angles having been [[chamfer]]ed and substituted with short [[Curtain wall (architecture)|curtain walls]].<ref name="Bylinski160">Bylinski 2004, p. 160.</ref> Around the artificial mound upon which the fortress sits is a moat with a depth of {{convert|22|m|ft|sp=us}} and a width of {{convert|80|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name="Bylinski159"/> Al-Rahba's moat is considerably deeper than the Ayyubid-era desert fortresses of [[Palmyra Castle|Palmyra]] and [[Shmemis|Shumaimis]].<ref name="Bylinski159"/> A large [[cistern]] makes up the lowest floor of the keep.<ref name="Burns238"/><ref name="Bylinski159"/>

Several bastions were built along the external walls of the fortress. The western and southeastern sides contained al-Rahba's four largest bastions, with the largest measuring {{convert|17.2x15.2|m|ft|sp=us}} and the smallest being {{convert|12.4x12.4|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name="Bylinski162"/> These bastions supported heavy defensive artillery.<ref name="Bylinski162"/> Their height surpassed the towers of Palmyra and Shumaimis probably because the latter forts' locations on isolated hills did not necessitate "state of the art defensive artillery", according to Bylinski.<ref name="Bylinski162"/> By contrast, at al-Rahba, enemy siege engines could be placed at the close-by plateaus, which were almost at level with the fortress.<ref name="Bylinski162"/> Al-Rahba's smallest bastion is on its northern, less vulnerable wall and measures {{convert|5.2x4.4|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name="Bylinski160"/>

Both the external walls and those around the keep were fitted with [[merlon]]s and [[parapet]]s, with the parapets of the keep positioned 6.5 meters higher than their counterparts along the external wall.<ref name="Bylinski159"/> This was done to establish a secondary defensive line that enabled the building's defenders to shoot arrows at attackers who breached the external walls.<ref name="Bylinski159"/> The core building was linked to the external fortifications by corridors and chambers.<ref name="Bylinski162"/>

===Construction phases===
Though large parts of the building are in ruins, excavations have determined that al-Rahba went through at least eight undated construction phases probably starting from the early Ayyubid period.<ref name="Bylinski160"/> For the most part, each phase utilized different architectural techniques and fortification concepts, and none of the phases affected the entire extent of the building at one time.<ref name="Bylinski161">Bylinski 2004, p. 161.</ref> One common theme of the phases was the restoration or strengthening of al-Rahba's western and southeastern sides, which faced the desert plateau and were the most exposed areas of the fortress.<ref name="Bylinski162"/> In contrast, the northern side facing the population centers remained largely unchanged.<ref name="Bylinski162"/>

The first phase saw the walls built with [[mudbrick]], a very common feature of Euphrates-area structures.<ref name="Bylinski160"/> Although the shape of the building after its initial phase cannot be determined, Paillet presumes that its size likely corresponded to that of the current building.<ref name="Bylinski160"/> The small salient bastion that juts out of the northern wall dates to the first phase.<ref name="Bylinski160"/>

The second phase of construction added three salient bastions, each of which were over twice the size of the northern bastion.<ref name="Bylinski160"/> The new bastions were placed along the part of al-Rahba's citadel that faced the desert to the west.<ref name="Bylinski160"/> The builders in the second phase also reinforced al-Rahba's walls with roughly cut [[conglomerate (geology)|conglomerate]] blocks fixed together by high-quality [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]].<ref name="Bylinski160"/> In the third phase, higher quality mudbrick was used, the western curtain wall was elevated and the southwestern curtain wall was replaced and decorated with bands of Arabic inscriptions.<ref name="Bylinski160"/> In addition, a large, brick dome was built atop the ground-level chamber of the northwestern bastion.<ref name="Bylinski160"/> The external walls of the fortress reached their final form during the third phase, though there would be further restorations in later decades.<ref>Bylinski 2004, pp. 160–161.</ref>

In the fourth phase, low-lying [[casemate]]s were added to the western and southwestern curtains to provide an additional platform for al-Rahba's defenders to use.<ref name="Bylinski161"/> The walls, particularly on the eastern side, were reinforced in the fifth phase, which Paillet attributes to the efforts of Shirkuh II and his Ayyubid contemporaries to strengthen the fortresses of Syria.<ref name="Bylinski161"/> The building technique used in this phase likely necessitated significant funds, equipment and technical expertise.<ref name="Bylinski161"/> Several changes were made including the southeastern tower being rebuilt and the northeastern tower being reinforced by an additional wall and a vaulted story.<ref name="Bylinski161"/> Moreover, the northern slope of the outer wall was further strengthened with a [[glacis]] built from large conglomerate blocks.<ref name="Bylinski161"/> A building in the center of al-Rahba was erected during this phase, likely replacing an older structure or a courtyard.<ref name="Bylinski161"/>

The last major building phase was the sixth, which saw the restoration of the eastern and western external walls after they were severely damaged by Mongol besiegers.<ref name="Bylinski161"/> A northeastern salient bastion, much smaller than the eastern and western bastions, was also built.<ref name="Bylinski161"/> Masonry from the fifth phase was reused for the reconstruction along with new [[gypsum]], [[limestone]] and other materials.<ref name="Bylinski161"/> The seventh and eighth phases both consisted of heightening al-Rahba's western external walls.<ref name="Bylinski161"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
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{{refend}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Qal'at Rahba}}
{{Castles in Syria}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Rahba}}
[[Category:9th-century establishments in the Abbasid Caliphate]]
[[Category:1207 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:Ayyubid architecture in Syria]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Deir ez-Zor Governorate]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Deir ez-Zor Governorate]]
[[Category:9th-century fortifications]]
[[Category:Castles in Syria]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Syria]]
[[Category:Ruined castles in Syria]]
[[Category:13th-century establishments in the Ayyubid Sultanate]]