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Doping at the Olympic Games

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The use of performance enhancing drugs (PEDs) has had a long history at the Olympic Games. Its origins can be traced even back to the Ancient Olympics where Olympians would eat lizard meat prepared a special way, in the hopes that it would give them an athletic edge.[1] The first documented use of drugs to improve an athlete's performance was the winner of the 1904 marathon, Thomas Hicks. The use of performance enhancing medication has also been attributed to one death during Olympic competition.[2] As rumors of rampant drug use by athletes began to spread the International Olympic Committee (IOC) decided to act. By 1967, the IOC had banned the use of performance enhancing drugs in Olympic competition. The IOC introduced the first drug use controls at the 1968 Winter Olympics.

These controls eventually evolved into a systematic testing regimen that all Olympic athletes must adhere to. Testing of athletes for performance enhancing drugs includes both urine and blood tests. As of 1999 the authoritative body on the use of performance enhancing drugs is the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). This organization oversees the testing of athletes for several sports federations and the Olympic Games. As the creators of these drugs continue to improve their sophistication, potency and transparency, WADA and its constituency also innovate new ways to detect these drugs. Athletes continue to use various medical modifications to their body as a means of improving their athletic performance.

History

The use of performance enhancing tactics, and more broadly, the use of any external device to nefariously influence the outcome of a sporting event has been a part of the Olympics since its inception in Ancient Greece. One speculation as to why men were required to compete naked was to prevent the use of extra acoutraments and to keep women from competing in events specifically designed for men.[3] Athletes were also known to drink "magic" potions and eat exotic meats in the hopes of given them an athletic edge on their competition.[1] If they were caught cheating, their likenesses were often engraved into stone and placed in a pathway that led to the Olympic stadium.[3] In the modern Olympic era, chemically enhancing one's performance has evolved into a sophisticated science, but in the early years of the Modern Olympic movement the use of performance enhancing drugs was almost as crude as its ancient predecessors.

During the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes discovered ways to practically improve their athletic abilities. For example, the winner of the marathon at the 1904 Games, Thomas Hicks, was given strychnine and brandy by his coach, even during the race.[4] As these methods became more extreme, it became increasingly evident that the use of performance enhancing drugs was not only a threat to the integrity of sport but could also have potentially fatal side effects on the athlete. The only Olympic death linked to athletic drug use occurred at the Rome Games of 1960. During the cycling road race, Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen fell from his bicycle and later died. A coroner's inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamines, which had caused him to lose consciousness during the race.[2] Jensen's death exposed to the world how endemic drug use was among elite athletes.[5] By the mid–1960s, sports federations were starting to ban the use of performance enhancing drugs, and the IOC followed suit in 1967.[6]

The first Olympic athlete to test positive for the use of performance enhancing drugs was Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use.[7] Liljenwall was the only athlete to test positive for a banned substance at the 1968 Olympics, as the technology and testing techniques improved, the number of athletes discovered to be chemically enhancing their performance increased as well.

Kornelia Ender

The most histematic case of systematic drug use for athletic achievement is that of the East German Olympic teams of the 1970s and 1980s. In 1990, documents were discovered that showed many East German female athletes, especially swimmers, had been administered anabolic steroids and other drugs by their coaches and trainers. Girls as young as eleven were started on the drug regimen without consent from their parents. American female swimmers, including Shirley Babashoff, accused the East Germans of using performance enhancing drugs as early as the 1976 Summer Games.[8] Babashoff's comments were dismissed by the international and domestic media as sour grapes since Babashoff, a clear favorite to win multiple gold medals, won three silver medals - losing all three times to either Kornelia Ender or Petra Thümer (both from East Germany), and one gold medal in a relay. There was no suspicion of cheating on the part of the East German female swimmers even though their medal tally increased from four silvers and one bronze in 1972 to ten golds (out of a possible twelve), six silvers, and one bronze in 1976. No clear evidence was discovered until after the fall of the Berlin Wall, when the aforementioned documents proved that East Germany had embarked on a state-sponsored drug regimen to dramatically improve their competitiveness at the Olympic Games and other international sporting events. Many of the East German authorities responsible for this program have been subsequently tried and found guilty of various crimes in the German penal system.[9][10]

A very publicized steroid-related disqualification at an Olympic Games was the case of Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson, who won the 100 meter dash at the 1988 Seoul Olympics, but tested positive for stanozolol. His gold medal was subsequently stripped and awarded to runner-up Carl Lewis, who himself had tested positive for banned substances prior to the Olympics, but had not been banned due to a lack of consistency in the application of the rules. At that time National Olympic Committees had leeway to determine whether a specific athlete met the criteria to be banned from Olympic competition.[11]

Current response

In the late 1990s, the IOC took the initiative in a more organized battle against doping, leading to the formation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 1999. The 2000 Summer Olympics and 2002 Winter Olympics have shown that the effort to eliminate performance enhancing drugs from the Olympics is not over, as several medalists in weightlifting and cross-country skiing were disqualified due to failing a drug test. During the 2006 Winter Olympics, only one athlete failed a drug test and had a medal revoked. The IOC-established drug testing regimen (now known as the "Olympic Standard") has set the worldwide benchmark that other sporting federations attempt to emulate.[12] During the Beijing games, 3,667 athletes were tested by the IOC under the auspices of the World Anti-Doping Agency. Both urine and blood testing was used in a coordinated effort to detect banned substances recent blood transfusions. While several athletes were barred from competition by their National Olympic Committees prior to the Games, six athletes failed drug tests while in competition in Beijing.[13][14]

Prohibited drugs

Main article: List of drugs banned from the Olympics

Summer Olympic Games

What follows is a list of all the athletes that have tested positive for a banned substance either during or after an Olympic Games in which they competed. Any medals listed were revoked by the International Olympic Commission (IOC). In 1967 the IOC banned the use of performance-enhancing drugs, instituted a Medical Commission, and created a list of banned substances.[15] Mandatory testing began at the following years Summer and Winter games.[15]

1968 Mexico City

Main article: 1968 Summer Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall  Sweden Modern pentathlon Ethanol 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (team)

1972 Munich

Main article: 1972 Summer Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Bakaava Buidaa  Mongolia Judo Caffeine 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (63 kg)
Miguel Coll  Puerto Rico Basketball Ephedrine
Rick DeMont  United States Swimming Ephedrine 1st place, gold medalist(s) (400 m freestyle)
Jaime Huélamo  Spain Cycling Coramine 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (individual road race)
Walter Legel  Austria Weightlifting Amphetamine
Mohammad Reza Nasehi  Iran Weightlifting Ephedrine
Aad van den Hoek  Netherlands Cycling Coramine 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (100 km team race)

1976 Montreal

Main article: 1976 Summer Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Blagoi Blagoev  Bulgaria Weightlifting Anabolic steroid 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (82.5 kg)
Mark Cameron  United States Weightlifting Anabolic steroid
Paul Cerutti  Monaco Shooting Amphetamine
Dragomir Ciorosian  Romania Weightlifting Fencanfamine
Philippe Grippaldi  United States Weightlifting Anabolic steroid
Zbigniew Kaczmarek  Poland Weightlifting Anabolic steroid 1st place, gold medalist(s) (67.5 kg)
Valentin Khristov  Bulgaria Weightlifting Anabolic steroid 1st place, gold medalist(s) (100 kg)
Lorne Liebel  Canada Sailing Phenylpropanolamine
Arne Norrback  Sweden Weightlifting Anabolic steroid
Peter Pavlasek  Czechoslovakia Weightlifting Anabolic steroid
Danuta Rosani  Poland Athletics Anabolic steroid

1980 Moscow

Main article: 1980 Summer Olympics

Though no athletes were caught doping at the 1980 Summer Olympics, it has been claimed that athletes had begun using testosterone and other drugs for which tests had not been yet developed. A 1989 report by a committee of the Australian Senate claimed that "there is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner...who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might well have been called the Chemists' Games".[16]

A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official.[16] The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols.[17] The first case of "blood doping" occured at the 1980 Summer Olympics as a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5 and 10 kilometer races.[18]

1984 Los Angeles

Main article: 1984 Summer Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Serafim Grammatikopoulos  Greece Weightlifting Nandrolone
Vésteinn Hafsteinsson  Iceland Athletics Nandrolone
Tomas Johansson  Sweden Wrestling Methenolone 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (super-heavy)
Stefan Laggner  Austria Weightlifting Nandrolone
Göran Petersson  Sweden Weightlifting Nandrolone
Eiji Shimomura  Japan Volleyball Testosterone
Mikiyasu Tanaka  Japan Volleyball Ephedrine
Ahmed Tarbi  Algeria Weightlifting Nandrolone
Mahmud Tarha  Lebanon Weightlifting Nandrolone
Gianpaolo Urlando  Italy Athletics Testosterone
Martti Vainio  Finland Athletics Methenolone 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (10,000 m)
Anna Verouli  Greece Athletics Nandrolone

The organizers of the Los Angeles games had refused to provide the IOC doping authorities with a safe prior to the start of the games. Due to a lack of security, medical records were subsequently stolen.[16] A 1994 letter from IOC Medical Commission chair Alexandre de Mérode claimed that Tony Daly, a member of the Los Angeles organizing committee had destroyed the records.[16] Dick Pound later wrote of his frustration that the organizing committee had removed evidence before it could be acted on by the IOC. Pound also claimed that IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch and Primo Nebiolo, President of the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) had conspired to delay the annoucment of positive tests so that the games could pass without controversy.[16]

The American cyclist Pat McDonough later admitted to "blood doping" at the 1984 Los Angeles Games. [19] Following the games it was revealed that one-third of the U.S. cycling team had received blood transfusions before the games, where they won nine medals, their first medal success since the 1912 Summer Olympics. [19] "Blood doping" was banned by the IOC in 1985, though no test existed for it at the time. [19]

1988 Seoul

Main article: 1988 Summer Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Alidad  Afghanistan Wrestling Furosemide
Kerrith Brown  Great Britain Judo Furosemide
Kalman Csengeri  Hungary Weightlifting Stanozolol
Mitko Grablev  Bulgaria Weightlifting Furosemide 1st place, gold medalist(s) (56 kg)
Angell Guenchev  Bulgaria Weightlifting Furosemide 1st place, gold medalist(s) (67.5 kg)
Ben Johnson  Canada Athletics Stanozolol 1st place, gold medalist(s) (100 m)
Fernando Mariaca  Spain Weightlifting Pemoline
Jorge Quesada  Spain Modern pentathlon Propanolol
Andor Szanyi  Hungary Weightlifting Stanozolol 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (100 kg)
Alexander Watson  Australia Modern Pentathlon Caffeine

1992 Barcelona

Main article: 1992 Summer Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Madina Biktagirova  Unified Team Athletics Norephedrine
Bonnie Dasse  United States Athletics Clenbuterol
Jud Logan  United States Athletics Clenbuterol
Nijolė Medvedeva  Lithuania Athletics Meziocarde
Wu Dan  China Volleyball Strychnine

1996 Atlanta

Main article: 1996 Summer Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Iva Prandzheva  Bulgaria Athletics Metadienone
Natalya Shekhodanova  Russia Athletics Stanozolol

2000 Sydney

Main article: 2000 Summer Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Fritz Aanes  Norway Wrestling Norandrosterone and noretiochdandone
Ashot Danielyan  Armenia Weightlifting Stanozolol 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (+105 kg)
Izabela Dragneva  Bulgaria Weightlifting Furosemide 1st place, gold medalist(s) (48 kg)
Stian Grimseth  Norway Weightlifting Nandrolone
Ivan Ivanov  Bulgaria Weightlifting Furosemide 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (56 kg)
Alexander Leipold  Germany Wrestling Nandrolone 1st place, gold medalist(s) (76 kg)
Sevdalin Minchev  Bulgaria Weightlifting Furosemide 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (62 kg)
Oyuunbilegiin Pürevbaatar  Mongolia Wrestling Furosemide
Andreea Răducan  Romania Gymnastics Pseudophedrine[20] 1st place, gold medalist(s) (individual all-round)
Andris Reinholds  Latvia Rowing Nandrolone
Antonio Pettigrew  United States Athletics EPO and HGH 1st place, gold medalist(s) (4 x 400 m relay)
Marion Jones  United States Athletics THG 1st place, gold medalist(s) (100 m), 1st place, gold medalist(s) (200 m), 1st place, gold medalist(s) (4 x 400m relay), 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (long jump), 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (4 x 100 m relay)

2004 Athens

Main article: 2004 Summer Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Wafa Ammouri  Morocco Weightlifting Anabolic steroid
Adrián Annus  Hungary Athletics Falsified test result 1st place, gold medalist(s) (hammer throw)
Andrew Brack  Greece Baseball Stanozolol
Viktor Chislean  Moldova Weightlifting Anabolic steroid
Róbert Fazekas  Hungary Athletics Missed the test 1st place, gold medalist(s) (discus throw)
Mabel Fonseca  Puerto Rico Wrestling Stanozolol
Anton Galkin  Russia Athletics Stanozolol
Ferenc Gyurkovics  Hungary Weightlifting Oxanfrolone 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (105 kg)
Zoltan Kecskes  Hungary Weightlifting Anabolic steroid
Konstantinos Kenteris  Greece Athletics Missed the test
Albina Khomic  Russia Weightlifting Testosterone
Aye Khine Nan  Myanmar Weightlifting Anabolic steroid
Irina Korzhanenko  Russia Athletics Stanozolol 1st place, gold medalist(s) (shot put)
Zoltán Kovács  Hungary Weightlifting Missed the test
Pratima Kumari Na  India Weightlifting Anabolic steroid
Aleksey Lesnichiy  Belarus Athletics Clenbuterol
David Munyasia  Kenya Boxing Cathine
Derek Nicholson  Greece Baseball Diuretic
Cian O'Connor  Ireland Equestrian Antipsychotics (to horse Waterford Crystal) 1st place, gold medalist(s) (individual jumping)
Olena Olefirenko  Ukraine Rowing Ethamivan 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (coxless four)
Leonidas Sampanis  Greece Weightlifting Testosterone 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (62 kg)
Thinbaijam Sanamcha Chanu  India Weightlifting Furosemide
Mital Sharipov  Kyrgyzstan Weightlifting Furosemide
Olga Shchukina  Uzbekistan Athletics Clenbuterol
Sahbaz Sule  Turkey Weightlifting Anabolic steroid
Ekaterini Thanou  Greece Athletics Missed the test
Ludger Beerbaum  Germany Show Jumping Betamethasone (to horse Goldfever) 1st place, gold medalist(s) (team jumping)

2008 Beijing

Main article: 2008 Summer Olympics

"Zero Tolerance for Doping" was adopted as an official slogan for the Beijing Olympic Games.[21] A number of athletes were already eliminated by testing prior to coming to Beijing.[21]

Out of the 4,500 samples that were collected from participating athletes at the games, six athletes with positive specimens were ousted from the competition. It is possible that further positive tests may still be found as samples are sealed and frozen for eight years. It is unclear who remains in charge of these samples, the host or the IOC. The quality of testing was questioned when the BBC reported that samples positive for EPO were labeled as negative by Chinese laboratories in July.[22] The rate of positive findings is lower than at Athens four years ago, but it cannot be deduced that the prevalence of doping has decreased; possibly, doping technology has become more sophisticated and a number of drugs cannot be detected.[21][22][23]

Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Maria Isabel Moreno  Spain Cycling Erythropoietin[24]
Kim Jong-su  North Korea Shooting Propranolol 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (10 m air pistol),2nd place, silver medalist(s) (50 m pistol)
Do Thi Ngan Thuong  Vietnam Gymnastics Furosemide
Fani Halkia  Greece Athletics Methyltrienolone[25]
Lyudmila Blonska  Ukraine Athletics Methyltestosterone[26] 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (heptathlon)
Igor Razoronov  Ukraine Weightlifting Nandrolone[27]
Bernardo Alves  Brazil Equestrian Capsaicin
Rodrigo Pessoa  Brazil Equestrian Nonivamide
Christian Ahlmann  Germany Equestrian Capsaicin
Denis Lynch  Ireland Equestrian Capsaicin
Tony André Hansen  Norway Equestrian Capsaicin 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (team jumping)
Courtney King  United States Equestrian Felbinac
Adam Seroczyński  Poland Canoeing Clenbuterol
Rashid Ramzi  Bahrain Athletics CERA[28] 1st place, gold medalist(s) (1500 m)
Davide Rebellin  Italy Cycling CERA[28] 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (Men's road race)
Stefan Schumacher  Germany Cycling CERA[28]
Vanja Perisic  Croatia Athletics CERA[28]
Athanasia Tsoumeleka  Greece Athletics CERA[28]

2012 London

Main article: 2012 Summer Olympics

It was announced prior to the Summer games that half of all competitors are to be tested for drugs, with 150 scientists set to take 6,000 samples between the start of the games and the end of the Paralympic games.[29] In addition, every competitor who wins a medal will also be tested. The Olympic anti-doping laboratory will test up to 400 samples every day for more than 240 prohibited substances.[29]

British sprinter Dwain Chambers and cyclist David Millar will compete in London after the British Olympic Association's policy of punishing drug cheats with lifetime bans was overturned by the Court of Arbitration for Sport.[29]

At the games, the Men's road race was won by cyclist Alexandre Vinokourov, who had previously served a two year ban for blood doping in 2007.[30]

Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Luiza Galiulina  Uzbekistan Artistic gymnastics Furosemide[31]
Hysen Pulaku  Albania Weightlifting - Men's 77kg Stanozolol[30]
Tameka Williams  Saint Kitts and Nevis 100m/200m Unknown[32]

Winter Olympic Games

1968 Grenoble

Main article: 1968 Winter Olympics

No athletes were caught doping at these Games.

1972 Sapporo

Main article: 1972 Winter Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Alois Schloder  West Germany Ice hockey Ephedrine

1976 Innsbruck

Main article: 1976 Winter Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Galina Kulakova  Soviet Union Cross-country skiing Ephedrine 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (5 km)
Frantisek Pospisil  Czechoslovakia Ice hockey Codeine

1980 Lake Placid

Main article: 1980 Winter Olympics

No athletes were caught using performance enhancing drugs at these Games.

1984 Sarajevo

Main article: 1984 Winter Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Batsukh Purevjal  Mongolia Cross-country skiing Anabolic steroid

1988 Calgary

Main article: 1988 Winter Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Jaroslaw Morawiecki  Poland Ice hockey Testosterone

1992 Albertville

Main article: 1992 Winter Olympics

No athletes were caught using performance enhancing drugs at these Games

1994 Lillehammer

Main article: 1994 Winter Olympics

No athletes were caught using performance enhancing drugs at these Games

1998 Nagano

Main article: 1998 Winter Olympics

No athletes were caught using performance enhancing drugs at these Games

2002 Salt Lake City

Main article: 2002 Winter Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Alain Baxter  Great Britain Alpine skiing Methamphetamine 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (slalom)
Olga Danilova  Russia Cross-country skiing Darbepoetin 1st place, gold medalist(s) (10 km pursuit), 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (10 km)
Larisa Lazutina  Russia Cross-country skiing Darbepoetin 1st place, gold medalist(s) (30 km), 1st place, gold medalist(s) (10 km), 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (15 km freestyle)
Marc Mayer  Austria Cross-country skiing Use of blood transfusion equipment
Johann Mühlegg  Spain Cross-country skiing Darbepoetin 1st place, gold medalist(s) (50 km), 1st place, gold medalist(s) (30 km freestyle), 1st place, gold medalist(s) (20 km pursuit)
Vasily Pankov  Belarus Ice hockey Nandrolone
Achim Walcher  Austria Cross-country skiing Use of blood transfusion equipment

2006 Turin

Main article: 2006 Winter Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Olga Pyleva  Russia Biathlon Carphedon 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (15 km)

2010 Vancouver

Main article: 2010 Winter Olympics
Name Country Sport Banned substance Medals
Kornelia Marek  Poland Cross-country skiing Erythropoietin[33]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Lovgren, Stefan. "Ancient Olympics mixed Naked Sports, Pagan Partying". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
  2. ^ a b "A Brief History of Anti-Doping". World Anti-Doping Agency. Retrieved 2008-09-10.
  3. ^ a b Gibson, Candace. "How the First Olympics Worked". Discovery Communications. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
  4. ^ "Tom Hicks". Sports-reference.com. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
  5. ^ Maraniss, David (2008). Rome 1960. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 1-4165-3407-5.
  6. ^ Begley, Sharon (2008-01-07). "The Drug Charade". Newsweek. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
  7. ^ "Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall". 123explore.com. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
  8. ^ Brennan, Christine (2004-07-14). "Babashoff had Mettle to Speak out about Steroids". USA Today. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
  9. ^ Longman, Jere (2001-04-22). "Just Following Orders, Doctors' Orders". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
  10. ^ "Sports Doping Statistics Reach Plateau in Germany". Deutsche Welle. 2006-02-26. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
  11. ^ Magnay, Jacquelin (2003-04-18). "Carl Lewis's positive test covered up". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
  12. ^ Coile, Zachary (2005-04-27). "Bill Seeks to Toughen Drug Testing in Pro Sports". San Francisco Chornicle. Retrieved 2008-09-03.
  13. ^ "Doping: 3667 athletes tested, IOC seeks action against Halkia's coach". Express India Newspapers. 2008-08-19. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
  14. ^ "A Brief History of Anti-Doping". World Anti-Doping Agency. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
  15. ^ a b Mottram, David R. (30 March 2011). Drugs in Sport. Taylor & Francis. pp. 21–. ISBN 978-0-415-55086-4. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
  16. ^ a b c d e Mitchell Hunt, Thomas (2007). Drug Games: The International Politics of Doping and the Olympic Movement, 1960--2007. ProQuest. pp. 99–. ISBN 978-0-549-16219-3. Retrieved 19 July 2012. Cite error: The named reference "Hunt2007" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  17. ^ Wilson, Wayne (Ph.D.); Derse, Ed (2001). Doping in Élite Sport: The Politics of Drugs in the Olympic Movement. Human Kinetics. pp. 77–. ISBN 978-0-7360-0329-2. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
  18. ^ Sytkowski, Arthur J. (May 2006). Erythropoietin: Blood, Brain and Beyond. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 187–. ISBN 978-3-527-60543-9. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
  19. ^ a b c Steven B. Kayne (2006). Sport And Exercise Medicine For Pharmacists. Pharmaceutical Press. pp. 232–. ISBN 978-0-85369-600-1. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
  20. ^ Associated Press (September 26, 2000). "Raducan tests positive for stimulant". ESPN.
  21. ^ a b c "Beijing Faces Big Challenge in Keeping Olympics Drug-Free". Deutsche Welle. 08-03-2008. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ^ a b McGrath, Matt (2008-07-21). "Concerns over Olympic drug test". BBC.
  23. ^ KNA (2008-08-23). "Ukrainischer Gewichtheber Razoronov positiv getestet". Der Spiegel. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ "Spanish cyclist Moreno tests positive for EPO". guardian.co.uk. 11 August 2008.
  25. ^ "Greek champion fails drugs test". BBC Sport. 17 August 2008.
  26. ^ "Blonska stripped of silver medal". BBC Sport. 22 August 2008.
  27. ^ "Ukrainian lifter fails dope test". BBC Sport. 23 August 2008.
  28. ^ a b c d e Wilson, Stephen (July 8, 2009). "Backup samples positive for 5 Olympians". Associated Press.
  29. ^ a b c "London 2012: All medallists to be drugs tested at Olympics". BBC News Online. 2012-07-15. Retrieved 2012-07-28.
  30. ^ a b "Road race winner Alexandre Vinokourov considers retiring". BBC News Online. 2012-07-28. Retrieved 2012-07-28. Cite error: The named reference "BBCJul28" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  31. ^ "Olympics 2012 drugs: Artistic gymnast fails doping test". BBC News Online. 2012-07-29. Retrieved 2012-07-29.
  32. ^ Cherry, Gene (July 29, 2012). "Olympics-St Kitts sprinter out for using banned drug". Reuters. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
  33. ^ Scislowska, Monika (March 17, 2009). "Test confirms Polish skier Marek doped at Olympics". Associated Press.
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