Editing Ilkhanate

{{Short description|1256–1335 breakaway khanate of the Mongol Empire}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = 
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Illkhans
| common_name            = Ilkhanate
| status                 = {{plainlist|*[[Administrative region]] of [[Mongol Empire]] (1256–1259)
*Independent [[khanate]] (1260–1335)}}
| life_span              = 1256–1335<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Biran |first=Michal |date=2016 |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe362 |title=Il-Khanate Empire |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Empire |editor-last1=Dalziel |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first1=N. |editor-first2=J. M. |page=1|isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 }}</ref>
| government_type        = [[Monarchy]]
| image_map              = Historical Atlas of Iran - Plate No. 17 (cropped).jpg
| image_map_caption      = The Ilkhanate under [[Ghazan]]
| image_map_size         = 300
| capital                = {{plainlist|
*[[Maragheh]] (1256–1265)
* [[Tabriz]] (1265–1306)
* [[Soltaniyeh]] (1306–1335)}}
| religion               = *[[Buddhism]]
*[[Islam]]
| official_languages     = {{plainlist|[[Persian language|Persian]] <small>(''[[lingua franca]]'', official, administration, documents)</small>{{sfn|Fragner|2006|pp=78–79}}
*[[Middle Mongol|Mongol]] <small>(ruling dynasty, court, documents)</small><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vajda |first=Edward |title=The Languages and Linguistics of Northern Asia |page=79 |date=2024 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=9783110556216}}</ref>{{sfn|Fragner|2006|p=78}}}}
| common_languages       = '''Unofficial:'''{{plainlist|
*[[Arabic]]{{sfn|Badiee|1984|p=97}}
*[[Turkic languages|Turkic]]{{sfn|Vásáry|2016|p=149}}}}
| leader1                = [[Hulagu Khan]]
| leader2                = [[Abu Sa'id (Ilkhanid dynasty)|Abu Sa'id]]
| year_leader1           = 1256–1265
| year_leader2           = 1316–1335
| title_leader           = [[Khan (title)|Khan]]
| stat_year1             = 1310 est.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D | title = East-West Orientation of Historical Empires | journal = Journal of World-Systems Research|date=December 2006 |volume=12|issue=2 |page=223 |url =http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|access-date=13 September 2016 |issn= 1076-156X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=September 1997|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=41|issue=3|page=496|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|author=Rein Taagepera|author-link=Rein Taagepera|jstor=2600793|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807}}</ref>
| stat_area1             = 3750000
| demonym                = 
| area_km2               = 
| area_rank              = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| HDI                    = 
| HDI_year               = 
| p1                     = Mongol Empire
| s1                     = Jalayirid Sultanate{{!}}Jalayirids
| p2                     = Abbasid Caliphate
| p3                     = Nizari Ismaili state
| p4                     = Sultanate of Rum
| p5                     = Kingdom of Georgia
| p6                     = Qutlugh-Khanids
| p7                     = Ayyubid dynasty
| p8                     = Salghurids
| p9                     = Anatolian beyliks
| s2                     = Chobanids
| s3                     = Muzaffarids of Iran{{!}}Muzaffarids
| s4                     = Kartids
| s5                     = Sarbadars
| s6                     = Injuids
| s7                     = Mihrabanids
| s8                     = Eretnids
| s9                     = Kingdom of Georgia
| s10                    = Anatolian beyliks
| s11                    = Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo){{!}}Mamluks
| s12                    = Sutayids
| today                  = 
}}
The '''Ilkhanate''' or  '''Il-khanate''' was a Mongol [[khanate]] founded in the southwestern territories of the [[Mongol Empire]]. It was ruled by the '''Il-Khans''' or '''Ilkhanids''' , and known to the Mongols as '''''Hülegü Ulus''''' ({{lit|people / state of Hülegü}}).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Biran |first1=Michael |title=Il-Khanate Empire |journal=The Encyclopedia of Empire |editor-first1=N. |editor-last1=Dalziel |editor-first2=J. M. |editor-last2=MacKenzie |date=2016 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe362|isbn=9781118455074 }}</ref> The Ilkhanid realm was officially known as the “ subordinate Khan” or “ vessel ruler”.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Danilenko |first1=Nadja |title=Picturing the Islamicate World: The Story of al-Iṣṭakhrī's Book of Routes and Realms |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |page=101 |chapter=In Persian, Please! The Translations of al-Iṣṭakhrī’s Book of Routes and Realms|quote=Connecting to ''īrān'' as illustrated in the ''Shāhnāma'', 'land of Iran' rose to the official name for the Ilkhanid realm.}}</ref><ref>{{Encyclopaedia Iranica | title = Iranian Identity iii. Medieval Islamic Period | last = Ashraf | first = Ahmad | authorlink = | url = https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-iii-medieval-islamic-period | volume = 13 | fascicle = 5 | pages = 507–522 | location = | publisher = | quote = ...&nbsp;the Mongol and Timurid phase, during which the name 'Iran' was used for the dynastic realm and a pre-modern ethno-national history of Iranian dynasties was arranged. }}</ref> It was established after [[Hulegu Khan|Hülegü]], the son of [[Tolui]] and grandson of [[Genghis Khan]], inherited the [[West Asia]]n and [[Central Asia|Central Asian]] part of the Mongol Empire after his brother [[Möngke Khan]] died in 1259.

The Ilkhanate's core territory lies in what is now the countries of [[Iran]], [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Turkey]]. At its greatest extent, the Ilkhanate also included parts of modern [[Iraq]], [[Syria]], [[Armenia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Pakistan]], part of modern [[Dagestan]], and part of modern [[Tajikistan]]. Later Ilkhanid rulers, beginning with [[Ghazan]] in 1295, converted to [[Islam]]. In the 1330s, the Ilkhanate was ravaged by the [[Black Death]]. The last ilkhan, [[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan]], died in 1335, after which the Ilkhanate disintegrated.

The Ilkhanid rulers, although of non-Iranian origin, tried to advertise their authority by tying themselves to the Iranian past, and they recruited historians to present the Mongols as heirs to the [[Sasanian Empire]] (224–651).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Danilenko |first1=Nadja |title=Picturing the Islamicate World: The Story of al-Iṣṭakhrī's Book of Routes and Realms |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |pages=94–95 |chapter=In Persian, Please! The Translations of al-Iṣṭakhrī's Book of Routes and Realms}}</ref> Native intellectuals interested in their own history interpreted the unification by the Mongols as a revival of their long-lost dynastic tradition, and the concept of "Land of Iran" (''Irān-zamin'') was considered an important ideology and was further developed by the later [[Safavid Iran|Safavid Empire]] (1501–1736). Similar to the development in China under the [[Yuan dynasty]], the revival of the concept of territorial unity, although not intended by the Mongols, became a lasting legacy of Mongol rule in Iran.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hodong Kim |date=2015 |title=Was 'da Yuan' a Chinese Dynasty? |journal=Journal of Song-Yuan Studies |volume=45 |page=292}}</ref>

==Definition==
According to the historian [[Rashid al-Din Hamadani]], [[Kublai Khan]] granted his brother [[Hulegu Khan|Hülegü]] the title [[Ilkhan (title)|ilkhan]] after Hülegü's defeat of [[Ariq Böke]], another brother. The term ''ilkhan'' here means "[[khan (title)|khan]] of the tribe, khan of the [[orda (organization)|ulus]]", and this lesser khanship refers to the initial deference to Möngke Khan and his successors as [[List of Mongol rulers#Great Khans|Great Khans of the Mongol Empire]]. The title ilkhan carried by the descendants of Hulagu and, later, other [[Borjigin]] princes in Persia, does not appear in the sources until after 1260.<ref>Peter Jackson ''The Mongols and the West'', p. 127</ref>

==History==
{{see also|Timeline of the Ilkhanate}}

===Origin===
When [[Muhammad II of Khwarazm]] ordered a contingent of merchants, dispatched by the Mongols, to be killed, [[Genghis Khan]] declared war on the [[Anushtegin dynasty]] in 1219. [[Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia|The Mongols overran the empire]], occupying the major cities and population centers between 1219 and 1221. Iran was ravaged by the Mongol detachment under [[Jebe]] and [[Subutai]], who left the area in ruin. [[Transoxiana]] also came under Mongol control after the invasion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Curtin |first=Jeremiah |url=http://archive.org/details/mongolshistory0000curt |title=The Mongols : a history |date=1996 |publisher=Conshohocken, Pa. : Combined Books |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-585-10021-0}}</ref>

Muhammad II's son [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu]] returned to Iran in c. 1224 after fleeing to India. The rival Turkic states, which were all that remained of his father's empire, quickly declared their allegiance to Jalal. He repulsed the first Mongol attempt to take Central Persia. However, Jalal ad-Din was overwhelmed and crushed by [[Chormaqan]]'s army sent by the Great Khan [[Ögedei]] in 1231. During the Mongol expedition, [[Azerbaijan]] and the southern Persian dynasties in [[Fars Province|Fars]] and [[Kerman]] voluntarily submitted to the Mongols and agreed to pay tribute.<ref>Timothy May ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/33824384_Chormaqan_Noyan_the_first_Mongol_military_governor_in_the_Middle_East Chormaqan]'', p. 47</ref> 

[[File:DiezAlbumsArmedRiders I.jpg|thumb|left|Ilkhanid depiction of mounted warriors pursuing enemies, from [[Rashid al-Din Hamadani|Rashid al-Din]]'s ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh]]'', early 14th century]]

To the west, [[Hamadan]] and the rest of Persia was secured by Chormaqan. The Mongols [[Mongol invasion of Georgia and Armenia|invaded Armenia and Georgia]] in 1234 or 1236, completing the conquest of the [[Kingdom of Georgia]] in 1238. They began to attack the western parts of [[Bagratid Armenia]], which was under the [[Seljuks]], the following year. By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia (including modern-day Azerbaijan), Armenia, Georgia (excluding [[Abbasid]] Iraq and [[Nizari Ismaili state|Ismaili]] strongholds), as well as all of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Kashmir]].<ref>[[Thomas T. Allsen]] ''Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia'', p. 84</ref> After the [[battle of Köse Dağ]] in 1243, the Mongols under [[Baiju Noyan|Baiju]] occupied [[Anatolia]], while the [[Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm]] and the [[Empire of Trebizond]] became vassals of the Mongols.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Finlay |first=George |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofgreecef00finl |title=The history of Greece : from its conquest by the crusaders to its conquest by the Turks, and of the empire of Trebizond ; 1204–1461 |date=1851 |publisher=Edinburgh : Blackwood |others=Getty Research Institute}}</ref>

In 1236 Ögedei commanded [[Greater Khorasan]] to be restored and the city of [[Herat]] repopulated. The Mongol military governors mostly made camp in the [[Mughan plain]] in what is now Azerbaijan. Realizing the danger posed by the Mongols, the rulers of [[Mosul]] and the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]] submitted to the Great Khan. Chormaqan divided [[Transcaucasia]] into three districts based on the Mongol military hierarchy.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aknerts'i |first1=Grigor |url=http://archive.org/details/GrigorAknertsisHistoryOfTheNationOfArchersmongols |title=History of the Nation of Archers |last2=Bedrosian |first2=Robert |language=English}}</ref> In Georgia, the population was temporarily divided into eight [[tumen (unit)|tumens]].<ref>Kalistriat Salia ''History of the Georgian Nation'', p. 210</ref> In 1244, [[Güyük Khan]] stopped raising of revenue from districts in Persia as well and offered tax exemptions to others.<ref>C. P. Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, see: Monqe Khan</ref> In accordance with a complaint by the governor [[Arghun Aqa]], [[Möngke Khan]] prohibited ''[[ortogh]]''-merchants (Mongol-contracted Muslim traders)<ref>X. Liu. ''The Silk Road in World History'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2010 p. 116</ref><ref>E. Endicott-West. ''Merchant Associations in Yuan China: The "Ortoy,"''Asia Major, Third Series, Vol. 2 No. 2, Academica Sinica, 1989</ref> and nobles from abusing [[yam (route)|relay stations]] and civilians in 1251.<ref>M. Th. Houtsma ''E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936'', Volume 1, p. 729</ref> He ordered a new census and decreed that each man in the Mongol-ruled [[West Asia]] must pay in proportion to his property. Persia was divided between four districts under Arghun. Möngke Khan granted the [[Kartids]] authority over Herat, Jam, [[Pushang]] (Fushanj), [[Ghor]], Khaysar, Firuz-Kuh, Gharjistan, Farah, [[Sistan]], Kabul, Tirah, and Afghanistan.<ref>Ehsan Yar-Shater ''Encyclopædia Iranica'', p. 209</ref>

===Hulegu Khan===
[[File:HulaguAndDokuzKathun.JPG|thumb|[[Hulagu Khan]], founder of the Ilkhanate, with his Christian queen [[Doquz Khatun]]]]
[[File:IlkhanidHorseArcher.jpg|thumb|A [[Mongols|Mongol]] [[horse archer]] of the 13th century]]

[[Hulegu Khan]], third son of Tolui, grandson of Genghis Khan, and brother of both Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan, was the first khan of the Ilkhanate. Immediately after his brother Möngke's accession as Great Khan in 1251, Hulagu was appointed as administrator of North China, however in the following year, North China was assigned to Kublai and Hulagu tasked with conquering the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. He was given a fifth of the entire Mongol army for the campaign and he took his sons [[Abaqa]] and Yoshmut along with him. Hulagu also took with him many Chinese scholars and astronomers, from whom the famous Persian astronomer [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] learned about the mode of the [[Chinese astronomy|Chinese calculating tables]].<ref>H. H. Howorth ''History of the Mongols'', vol. IV, p. 138</ref> An observatory was built on a hill of [[Maragheh]]. Taking over from Baiju in 1255, Hulagu established Mongol rule from Transoxiana to [[Syria]]. He [[Mongol campaign against the Nizari Ismaili state|destroyed the Nizari Ismaili state]] and the Abbasid Caliphate in 1256 and 1258 respectively. In 1258, Hulagu proclaimed himself ilkhan (subordinate khan). After that he advanced as far as Gaza, briefly conquering [[Ayyubids|Ayyubid Syria]] and [[Siege of Aleppo (1260)|Aleppo]] in 1260. Möngke's death forced Hulagu to return to Mongolia to attend the [[kuriltai]] for the next Great Khan. He left a small force of around 10,000 behind in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] that was defeated at the [[battle of Ain Jalut]] by the [[Mamluk]]s of [[Egypt]].{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=225}}

Due to the suspicious deaths of three [[Jochi]]d princes in Hulagu's service, [[Berke]] of the [[Golden Horde]] [[Berke–Hulagu war|declared war]] on Hulagu in 1262. According to Mamluk historians, Hulagu might have massacred Berke's troops and refused to share his war booty with Berke. Berke sought a joint attack with [[Baybars]] and forged an alliance with the Mamluks against Hulagu. The Golden Horde dispatched the young prince [[Nogai Khan|Nogai]] to invade the Ilkhanate but Hulagu forced him back in 1262. The Ilkhanid army then crossed the [[Terek River]], capturing an empty Jochid encampment, only to be routed in a surprise attack by Nogai's forces. Many of them were drowned as the ice broke on the frozen Terek River.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=480}}{{sfn|Vernadsky|1953|p=161}}
[[File:سکه هلاکو خان.jpg|thumb|[[Silver dirham]] of Hulagu minted in [[Urmia]], with the title Qa'an al-'Azam (Greatest Khagan). Before the reign of [[Ghazan]], Ilkhans referred to the great Mongol khans in the coin inscriptions and official documents.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica: [https://www.britannica.com/place/Mongol-empire/The-Il-Khans-in-Iran Mongol empire, The Il-Khans in Iran].</ref>]]
In 1262, Hulagu gave [[Greater Khorasan]] and [[Mazandaran]] to Abaqa and northern [[Azerbaijan]] to Yoshmut. Hulagu himself spent his time living as a nomad in southern Azerbaijan and [[Armenia]]. During his early rule, the Ilkhanate experienced mass revolts by its subjects, with the exception of the [[Seljukids]] and [[Artuqid]]s in [[Anatolia]] and [[Mardin]]. It was not until [[Shams al-Din Juvayni]] was appointed as vizier after 1262 that things started calming down and a more sustainable administration was implemented.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=226}}

Hulagu fell ill in February 1265 after several days of banquets and hunting. He died on 8 February and his son Abaqa succeeded him in the summer.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=226}}

===Middle period (1265–1291)===
[[File:Asia in 1335.svg|thumb|The successor states of the Mongol Empire, its vassals, and neighbors in the early 1300s.]]
Upon [[Abaqa]]'s accession, he immediately faced an invasion by [[Berke]] of the Golden Horde, which ended with Berke's death in [[Tiflis]]. In 1270, Abaqa defeated an invasion by [[Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq]] of the [[Chagatai Khanate]]. Abaqa's brother [[Tekuder]] sacked [[Bukhara]] in retaliation. In 1277, the [[Mamluks]] invaded Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the [[Battle of Elbistan]]. Stung by the defeat, Abaqa executed the local regent Mu'in-ad-Din Pervane and replaced him with the Mongol prince Qongqortai. In 1281, Abaqa sent Mongke Temur against the Mamluks, but he too was defeated at [[Second Battle of Homs|Homs]].{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=234}}

Abaqa's death in 1282 triggered a succession struggle between his son [[Arghun]], supported by the [[Qara'unas]], and his brother Tekuder, supported by the Chinggisid aristocracy. Tekuder was elected khan by the Chinggisids. Tekuder was the first [[Muslim]] ruler of the Ilkhanate but he made no active attempt to proselytize or convert his realm. However he did try to replace Mongol political traditions with Islamic ones, resulting in a loss of support from the army. Arghun used his religion against him by appealing to non-Muslims for support. When Tekuder realized this, he executed several of Arghun's supporters, and captured Arghun. Tekuder's foster son, Buaq, freed Arghun and overthrew Tekuder. Arghun was confirmed as ilkhan by [[Kublai Khan]] in February 1286.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=234}}

During Arghun's reign, he actively sought to combat Muslim influence, and fought against both the Mamluks and the Muslim Mongol emir [[Nawrūz (Mongol emir)|Nawruz]] in Khorasan. To fund his campaigns, Arghun allowed his viziers Buqa and Sa'd-ud-dawla to centralize expenditures, but this was highly unpopular and caused his former supporters to turn against him. Both viziers were killed and Arghun was murdered in 1291.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=234}}

===Religious shift (1291–1316)===
[[File:DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg|thumb|The Mongol ruler [[Ghazan]], studying the [[Qur'an]]]]
[[File:Mu'nis al-ahrar Frontipiece, 1341.jpg|thumb|Ilkhanid court scene. ''[[The Free Man's Companion to the Niceties of Poems]]'', left [[Frontispiece (books)|frontispiece]], 1341, probably [[Isfahan]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carboni |first1=Stefano |title=Illustrated Poetry and Epic Images. Persian paintings of the 1330s and 1340s |page=12 |date=1994 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |location=New York |url=https://resources.metmuseum.org/resources/metpublications/pdf/Illustrated_Poetry_and_Epic_Images_Persian_Painting_of_the_1330s_and_1340s.pdf}}</ref>]]

The Ilkhanate started crumbling under the reign of Arghun's brother, [[Gaykhatu]]. The majority of Mongols converted to Islam while the Mongol court remained [[Buddhist]]. Gaykhatu had to buy the support of his followers and as a result, ruined the realm's finances. His vizir Sadr-ud-Din Zanjani tried to bolster the state finances by adopting paper money from the [[Yuan dynasty]], which remained largely unsuccessful.{{tone inline|date=March 2023}} Gaykhatu also alienated the Mongol old guard with his alleged sexual relations with a boy. Gaykhatu was overthrown in 1295 and replaced with his cousin [[Baydu]]. Baydu reigned for less than a year before he was overthrown by Gaykhatu's officer, [[Ghazan]].{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=234}}

Hulagu's descendants ruled Persia for the next eighty years, tolerating multiple religions, including Shamanism, Buddhism, and Christianity, and ultimately adopting Islam as a state religion in 1295. However, despite this conversion, the Ilkhanids remained opposed to the Mamluks, who had defeated both Mongol invaders and [[Crusaders]]. The Ilkhanids launched several invasions of Syria, but were never able to gain and keep significant ground against the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluks]], eventually being forced to give up their plans to conquer Syria, along with their stranglehold over their vassals the [[Sultanate of Rum]] and the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Armenian kingdom in Cilicia]]. This was in large part due to civil war in the Mongol Empire and the hostility of the khanates to the north and east. The [[Chagatai Khanate]] in [[Moghulistan]] and the [[Golden Horde]] threatened the Ilkhanate in the [[Caucasus]] and Transoxiana, preventing expansion westward. Even under Hulagu's reign, the Ilkhanate was engaged in open warfare in the Caucasus with the Mongols in the Russian steppes. On the other hand, the China-based [[Yuan dynasty]] was an ally of the Ikhanate and also held nominal suzerainty over the latter (the Emperor being also Great Khan) for many decades.<ref>Christopher P. Atwood ''Ibid''</ref>

Ghazan converted to Islam under influence of [[Nawrūz (Mongol emir)|Nawrūz]] and made Islam the official state religion. Christian and Jewish subjects lost their equal status and had to pay the [[jizya]] (minority religion tax). Ghazan gave Buddhists the starker choice of conversion or expulsion and ordered their temples to be destroyed; though he later relaxed this severity.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ubgBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA72|title=Medieval Persia 1040–1797|author=David Morgan |page=72|isbn=9781317415671|date=2015|publisher=Routledge |author-link=David Morgan (historian)}}</ref> After Nawrūz was deposed and killed in 1297, Ghazan made religious intolerance punishable and attempted to restore relations with non-Muslims.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4gB9DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|publisher= ABC-CLIO|title=The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia – Volume I|author=Timothy May|year=2016|page=141|isbn= 9781610693400}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tlgRqLA0EHsC&q=oljeitu+buddhists&pg=PA182|title=The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and Diplomacy During the Reigns of Het'um II (1289–1307)|author=Angus Donal Stewart|publisher=Brill|page=182|isbn=978-9004122925|date=2001}}</ref>

[[File:Ilkhanate Silk Circular (detail).jpg|thumb|left|Circular piece of silk with Mongol images, Iran or Iraq, early 14th century. Silk, cotton and gold.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The making of one of the greatest Islamic art museums in the world |journal=Apollo Magazine |date=26 November 2016 |url=https://www.apollo-magazine.com/making-one-greatest-islamic-art-museums-world/}}</ref>]]

In terms of foreign relations, the Ilkhanids' conversion to Islam had little to no effect on its hostility towards other Muslim states, and conflict with the Mamluks for control of Syria continued. The [[Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar]], the only major victory by the Mongols over the [[Mamluk Sultanate]], ended the latter's control over Syria for a few months.

For the most part, Ghazan's policies continued under his brother [[Öljaitü]] despite suggestions that he might begin to favor [[Twelver Shi'ism]] after he came under the influence of the theologians [[al-Allama al-Hilli]] and [[al-Bahrani]].<ref>Ali Al Oraibi, "Rationalism in the school of Bahrain: a historical perspective", in ''Shīʻite Heritage: Essays on Classical and Modern Traditions'' by Lynda Clarke, Global Academic Publishing 2001 p. 336</ref>

Öljeitü, who had been [[baptism|baptised in Christianity]] as an infant and had flirted with Buddhism, eventually became a [[Hanafi school|Hanafi Sunni]], though he still retained some residual shamanism. In 1309–10, he became a Shi'ite Muslim.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tlgRqLA0EHsC&q=oljeitu+buddhists&pg=PA181|title=The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and Diplomacy During the Reigns of Het'um II (1289–1307)|author=Angus Donal Stewart|publisher=Brill|page=181|isbn=978-9004122925|date=2001}}</ref> An Armenian scribe in 1304 noted the death of "benevolent and just" Ghazan, who was succeeded by Khar-Banda Öljeitü, "who too, exhibits good will to everyone." A colophon from 1306 reports the conversion of Mongols to Islam and "they coerce everyone into converting to their vain and false hope. They persecute, they molest, and torment," including "insulting the cross and the church".<ref name="auto"/> Some of the Buddhists who survived Ghazan's assaults made an unsuccessful attempt to bring Öljeitü back into Buddhism, showing they were active in the realm for more than 50 years.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&pg=PA141|title=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road|author=Johan Elverskog|publisher= [[Harvard University Press]]|page=141|isbn=978-0812205312|date=2011}}</ref>

The conversion of Mongols was initially a fairly superficial affair. The process of establishment of Islam did not happen suddenly. Öljeitü's historian Qāshāni records that [[Kutlushah]], after losing patience with a dispute between Hanafi and [[Shafi'i school|Shafi'i]] Sunnis, expressed his view that Islam should be abandoned and Mongols should return to the ways of Genghis Khan. Qāshani also stated that Öljeitü had reverted for a brief period. As Muslims, Mongols showed a marked preference for [[Sufism]], with masters like [[Safi-ad-Din Ardabili]] often treated with respect and favour.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ubgBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA73|title=Medieval Persia 1040–1797|author=David Morgan |page=73|isbn=9781317415671|date=2015|publisher=Routledge |author-link=David Morgan (historian)}}</ref>

===Disintegration (1316–1357)===
[[File:IranaftertheIlkhanate.png|thumb|[[West Asia]] in 1345, ten years after the death of Abu Sa'id. The [[Jalayirids]], [[Chobanids]], [[Muzaffarids (Iran)|Muzaffarids]], [[Injuids]], [[Sarbadars]], and [[Kartids]] took the Ilkhanate's place as the major powers in [[Iran]].]]

[[Öljaitü]]'s son, the last ilkhan, [[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan]], was enthroned in 1316. He was faced with rebellion in 1318 by the Chagatayids and Qara'unas in Khorasan, and an invasion by the Golden Horde at the same time. An Anatolian emir, Irenchin, also rebelled. Irenchin was crushed by [[Chupan]] of the [[Taichiud]] in the Battle of Zanjan-Rud on 13 July 1319. Under the influence of Chupan, the Ilkhanate made peace with the Chagatais, who helped them crush the Chagatayid revolt, and the Mamluks. In 1327, Abu-Sai'd replaced Chupan with "Big" Hasan.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=235}} Hasan was accused of attempting to assassinate the khan and exiled to Anatolia in 1332. The non-Mongol emirs Sharaf-ud-Din Mahmud-Shah and Ghiyas-ud-Din Muhammad were given unprecedented military authority, which irked the Mongol emirs. In the 1330s, outbreaks of the [[Black Death]] ravaged the Ilkhanate and both Abu-Sai'd and his sons were killed by 1335 by the plague.<ref>Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia By Ann K. S. Lambton</ref> Ghiyas-ud-Din put a descendant of [[Ariq Böke]], [[Arpa Ke'un]], on the throne, triggering a succession of short-lived khans until "Little" Hasan took Azerbaijan in 1338. In 1357, [[Jani Beg]] of the Golden Horde conquered Chupanid-held Tabriz for a year, putting an end to the Ilkhanate remnant.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=236}}

==Government==
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
| align    = right
| direction =horizontal
| image1   = Ilkhanate in the Catalan Atlas (central panels).png
| image2   = Il-Khanate in the Catalan Atlas (1375).jpg
| footer=Map of the Ilkhanate in the [[Catalan Atlas]]  (1375), with depiction of the ruler. The Ilkhanate flag appears over many cities: [[File:Flag_of_the_Ilkhanate.svg|15px]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Massing |first1=Jean Michel |last2=Albuquerque |first2=Luís de |last3=Brown |first3=Jonathan |last4=González |first4=J. J. Martín |title=Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration |date=1991 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-05167-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMK-Ba0-RG4C&pg=PA29 |language=en|page=29}}</ref>
}}

In contrast to the China-based Yuan dynasty, who excluded the native population from gaining control of high offices, the Ilkhanids ruled their realm through a Central Asian-Persian ("Tajik") administration in partnership with Turco-Mongol military officers. Not all of the Persian administrators were Muslims or members of the traditional families that had served the Seljuqs and Khwarazmians (e.g, the [[Juvayni family]]). For example, the Ilkhanate vizier from 1288 to 1291 was [[Sa'ad al-Dawla]], a Jew, while the prominent vizier and historian [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]] was a Jewish convert to Islam.{{sfn|Jackson|2017|p=412}}

The Ilkhanid rulers, who were keen to increase their autonomy, supported their Persian bureaucrats' promotion of the traditional Iranian idea of kingship. The Persian concept of monarchy over a territorial empire, or more specifically, the "Kingship of the Land of Iran" (''pādshāhi-ye Irān-zamin''), was easily sold to their Mongol masters by these bureaucrats. A lasting effect of the Mongol conquests was the emergence of the "national state" in Iran during the Ilkhanate era.{{sfn|Arjomand|2022|p=34}}
[[File:Abaqa Khan 2.jpg|thumb|[[Gold dinar]] of [[Abaqa Khan]] with Islamic legends in [[Arabic]] and Imperial legends in [[Middle Mongolian]].]]
The Ilkhanate Mongols remained nomadic in their way of life until the end of the dynasty. Their nomadic routes covered central [[Iraq]], northwest [[Iran]], [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Armenia]]. The Mongols administered Iraq, the [[Caucasus]], and western and southern Iran directly with the exception of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], the [[Artuqid]] sultan of [[Mardin]], and [[Kufa]] and [[Luristan]]. The [[Qara'unas]] Mongols ruled [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] as an autonomous realm and did not pay taxes. [[Herat]]'s local [[Kart dynasty]] also remained autonomous. Anatolia was the richest province of the Ilkhanate, supplying a quarter of its revenue while Iraq and [[Diyarbakir]] together supplied about 35 percent of its revenue.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=231}}

In 1330, the annexation of [[Abkhazia]] resulted in the reunification of the Kingdom of Georgia. However, tribute received by the Il-Khans from Georgia sank by about three-quarters between 1336 and 1350 because of wars and famines.<ref>D. M. Lang, Georgia in the Reign of Giorgi the Brilliant (1314–1346). Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1955), pp. 74–91</ref>

==Diplomacy==
{{See also|Franco-Mongol alliance}}
The courts of [[Western Europe]] made many attempts to ally with the Mongols, primarily with the Ilkhanate, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, starting from around the time of the [[Seventh Crusade]] in the mid-13th century. (Western Europeans were collectively called [[Franks#Crusaders and other Western Europeans as "Franks"|'Franks']] – '[[Farang|'Farang', 'Faranji']] – by Muslims and Asians in the era of the Crusades.) Despite their shared opposition to the [[Muslims]], primarily the [[Mamluk Sultanate]], no formal alliance ever was concluded.<ref>"Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam". Atwood, ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire'', p. 583, "Western Europe and the Mongol Empire"</ref>

While [[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan|Abu Sa'id]] eventually concluded a peace treaty with the Mamluks in 1322, the rivalry between the two powers continued diplomatically. Abu Sa'id, as a Muslim ruler, sought to demonstrate his legitimacy further abroad in Islamic terms, particularly through efforts to exert influence over the two holy cities of Islam, [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].{{Sfn|May|2018|pp=250, 253–254}} Even prior to the peace treaty's conclusion, the Ilkhan began sending large and richly-equipped pilgrimage (''[[hajj]]'') caravans from Iraq. In 1330 he went so far as to include, at great cost, an elephant in the caravan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Amitai |first=Reuven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A87eEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PT875 |title=The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-009-30197-8 |editor-last=Biran |editor-first=Michal |volume=2 |pages=816 |language=en |chapter=The Mongols and the Arab Middle East |editor-last2=Kim |editor-first2=Hodong}}</ref>{{Sfn|May|2018|p=254}} He also arranged for his name to be read aloud in the ''[[Khutbah|khutba]]'' (Friday sermon) in Medina for a time in 1318 and sent the ''[[Kiswah|kiswa]]'' (the ceremonial cloth covering the [[Kaaba]]) to Mecca in 1319.{{Sfn|May|2018|p=254}} In 1325, [[Chupan]] undertook the pilgrimage and sponsored repairs to the water supply in Mecca and the construction of a [[madrasa]] (college) and a [[hammam]] (bathhouse) in Medina.<ref name=":0" /> These actions challenged the primacy of the Mamluks in the [[Hejaz]] and provoked the Mamluk sultan, [[al-Nasir Muhammad]], into repeatedly reasserting his dominance in the region by sponsoring his own works there, by purging or replacing local officials, and by undertaking the ''hajj'' pilgrimage himself.{{Sfn|May|2018|pp=254–255}}

== Culture ==

=== Literature ===
[[File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art mss 0727 fol 59a det.jpg|thumb|Page from a manuscript of the ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh|Jami' al-Tawarikh]]'' of [[Rashid al-Din Hamadani|Rashid al-Din]] (1314–15 AD, [[Tabriz]]). The illustration here depicts [[Jonah and the whale]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Jami‘ al-Tawarikh of Rashid al-Din |url=https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/islamic-art/khalili-collection-islamic-art-the-jami-al-tawarikh-of-rashid-al-din-mss727/ |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=Khalili Collections |language=en-GB}}</ref>]]
The Ilkhanid period saw the creation of numerous written works devoted to history. They were typically intended for Ilkhanid administrators or even written for a particular ruler. Many of the writers in the early period were scholars who were trained under pre-Mongol dynasties but received patronage under the new regime.<ref name=":0522">{{Cite book |last=Kamola |first=Stefan |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2019 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Īlkhānids |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett |ref=none}}</ref> The most famous work of this time is the ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh]]'' ('Compendium of Histories') of [[Rashid al-Din Hamadani|Rashid al-Din]], initially commissioned by [[Ghazan]] but presented to [[Öljeitü]] upon its completion in 1307. Its first surviving volume is a history of the Mongol dynasty while the second is a history of the Iranian and Islamic world, along with stories of other cultures.<ref name=":0522" /> Ghazan also patronized [[Abu al-Qasim Kashani|Abu al-Qasim Qashani]], who composed the ''Ta'rikh-i Uljaytu'' ('History of Öljeitü'), and [[Wassaf|Shihab al-Din Waṣṣaf]], who wrote the ''Tajziyat al-amṣar wa-tazjiyat al-a'ṣar'' ('The Allocation of Cities and Propulsion of Epochs'{{Sfn|Kamola|2019|p=75}}). The latter was intended as a continuation of [[Ata-Malik Juvayni|Ala' al-Din Juvayni]]'s slightly earlier work, ''Tārikh-i jahangusha'' ('History of the World Conqueror'{{Sfn|Kamola|2019|p=75}}) which narrates the fall of the [[Khwarazmian Empire]] and the rise of the Mongol Empire. Various other works were also commissioned.<ref name=":0522" />

The later years of the Ilkhanate were also marked by interest in the ''[[Shahnameh]]'', the Iranian epic by 11th-century poet [[Firdowsi]]. Not only were new copies of the work produced, but it also inspired new historical works that copied its style and format, such as those of [[Hamdallah Mustawfi]].<ref name=":0522" />

=== Arts ===
[[File:Firdawsi - Folio from a Shahnama (Book of Kings) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|A page from the [[Great Mongol Shahnameh|Great Mongol ''Shahnameh'']] (early 14th century), with a [[Persian miniature|miniature]] painting illustrating mourners gathered around the body of [[Alexander the Great]]{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|2011|p=403}}|left]]
Among the arts patronized by the Ilkhans, the most important were the arts of the book. The major centers of manuscript production and illumination were [[Mosul]] and [[Baghdad]] in Iraq.<ref name=":24" /> They matched the quality of contemporary production in the [[Mamluk Sultanate]] and may have influenced the latter,<ref name=":24">{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA185 |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M. |volume=2 |location= |pages=184–185 |language=en |chapter=Ilkhanid |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> as there are artistic similarities between Mamluk and Ilkhanid manuscripts.{{sfn|Farhad|Rettig|2016|pp=104–105}} One notable development in this period is the production of manuscripts with very large pages, up to {{Convert|70 x 50|cm|in}} in size, with accordingly large scripts, particularly in [[Muhaqqaq|''muhaqqaq'']] style. Illustrations were common and are found in works on a variety of topics such as history, nature, religion, and astronomy.<ref name=":24" /> Among these was also an increased production of copies of the ''Shahnameh''. The most celebrated copy is the [[Great Mongol Shahnameh|Great Mongol ''Shahnameh'']], a large manuscript probably produced for Abu Sa'id in the 14th century. Its pages include highly expressive illustrations that reflect influences from across Eurasia, including China and Europe.<ref name=":24" /> Some two dozen large-scale Qur'ans have survived and are among the most impressive artistically-produced Qur'ans created up to this point. They were each produced over many years – one of the smaller examples from Baghdad took four years to transcribe and eight years to decorate – and feature elaborate multi-coloured frontispieces with geometric designs similar to those seen in Ilkhanid architecture such as the [[Dome of Soltaniyeh|Sultaniyya Mausoleum]].{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=25}}<ref name=":24" />

[[File:Frontispiece from the Hamadan Qur'an (National Library of Egypt Masahif Rasid 72, ff.1v-2r).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Double frontispiece for a Qur'an commissioned by [[Öljeitü]] and completed in 1313 in [[Hamadan]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ohta |first=Alison |date=2022 |title=The Hamadan Qur'an of Öljaytü: Vestiges of a Binding Tradition |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/article/abs/hamadan-quran-of-oljaytu-vestiges-of-a-binding-tradition/75B297CDF37E39798F2C5CDA67C5A4DC#access-block |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |language=en |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=743–761 |doi=10.1017/S1356186322000591 |issn=1356-1863}}</ref>]]
High-quality silk textiles were also produced under the Ilkhanids.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|2011|p=400}} The most important surviving example – possibly the only one definitively attributable to the Ilkhanate – is the large fragment of a burial robe for [[Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria|Duke Rudolf IV of Austria]] (d. 1365), which was made from an Iranian import. The textile was originally manufactured in an Ilkhanid state workshop, most likely in [[Tabriz]], and bears the name and titles of Abu Sa'id after 1319. It is woven in [[lampas]] and compound weaves in tan and red colours, with gold [[Warp and weft|wefts]].{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=21}} It features a motif of broad alternating bands: one set of stripes is filled with a repeating pattern of rhomboids and ornate medallions with vegetal motifs and peacocks in between them, while the other stripes are filled with large epigraphic inscriptions in Arabic script. Between these are narrower bands filled with other animals.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=21}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Shroud of Rudolf IV |url=https://dommuseum.at/collection/18 |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=Dom Museum Wien |language=en}}</ref> The use of this piece for a royal funerary shroud in Europe suggests that Iranian textiles were still highly prized abroad during this period.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|2011|p=400}}

In metalwork, Ilkhanid productions were often larger and more richly-decorated than earlier Iranian works.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|2011|p=400}} Major centers of production included Tabriz and [[Shiraz]].{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=23}} Surviving pieces are often made of brass [[Inlay|inlaid]] with copper, a type known in previous periods, as well as brass inlaid with gold, a newer trend used for more costly court objects.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|2011|p=|pp=400–401}} Among these examples is the base of the largest preserved candlestick from Islamic-era Iran, commissioned by one of [[Öljeitü]]'s viziers in 1308–09 and measuring {{Convert|32.5|cm|in|sigfig=2}} high.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|2011|p=|pp=400–401}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Candlestick Base |url=https://collections.mfa.org/objects/21922/candlestick-base;jsessionid=F20DBD67951741956C2D24646106F65A?ctx=83cd95fb-6656-49de-8c70-7d6d5454a9b0&idx=7 |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=MFA Boston |language=en}}</ref> Objects in gold and silver were likely also important but no examples have survived.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|2011|p=400}}

[[File:Bowl- met.jpg|thumb|A bowl in the ''[[Lajvardina-type ceramics|lajvardina]]'' technique, produced in Ilkhanid Iran, late 13th or early 14th century<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bowl |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/449019 |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |language=en}}</ref>]]
Ceramic production was of good quality but not as fine and as diverse as pottery from the preceding century.<ref name=":24" /> The type most commonly attributed to Ilkhanid Iran is the so-called "Sultanabad" ceramics. These were made of a softer white paste with a green or gray-brown [[Slip (ceramics)|slip]]. Bowls of this type were typically [[underglaze]]-painted with animal figures with a background of leaves.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|2011|p=400}} [[Kashan]] remained an important center of [[lustreware]] production until the late 13th century, although it ceased producing ceramic vessels after 1284 and then produced only [[tiles]] until 1340.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=21}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|2011|p=400}} The designs were less accomplished than in previous periods but they started to incorporate new Chinese-inspired motifs such as [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotuses]] and [[Simurgh|simurghs]].{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=21}} Starting around the 1270s or 1280s, a new style of expensive ceramic started to be produced, known as ''lajvardina'', from the Persian word for [[lapis lazuli]]. These often had a deep blue or sometimes blue-ish turquoise [[Ceramic glaze|glaze]] and were then [[Overglaze decoration|overglaze]]-painted with red, black, white, and gold colours. These have been found at [[Takht-e Soleymān|Takht-i Sulaymān]] and they may have replaced the pre-Mongol ''[[Mina'i ware|mina'i]]'' ceramics.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=22}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|2011|p=400}}

==Legacy==
[[File:Ilkhante ship sailing the Indian Ocean towards India, in the Catalan Atlas (1375).jpg|thumb|A ship under the Ilkhanate flag ([[File:Flag_of_the_Ilkhanate.svg|20px]]), sailing the [[Indian Ocean]] towards the coast of India under the control of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] ([[File:Delhi_Sultanate_Flag.svg|20px]]), in the [[Catalan Atlas]] (1375).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dang |first1=Baohai |last2=Rong |first2=Xinjiang |title=Marco Polo and the Silk Road |date=9 November 2021 |publisher=Beijing Book Co. Inc. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJlWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |language=zh}}</ref>]]

The emergence of the Ilkhanate had an important historical impact in [[West Asia]]. The establishment of the unified Mongol Empire had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia. The communications between the Ilkhanate and the [[Yuan Dynasty]] headquartered in China encouraged this development.<ref>Gregory G.Guzman – Were the barbarians a negative or positive factor in ancient and medieval history?, The historian 50 (1988), 568–70</ref><ref>Thomas T.Allsen – Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia, 211</ref> The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the Ilkhanids, the Chinese Huangdi (Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy influence upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Central Asiatic Journal|journal=Central Asiatic Journal |volume=52 |url=https://www.academia.edu/3725455|year=2008|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|page=46|last1=Ho|first1=Kai-Lung}}</ref>
[[File:Abusa'id tamgha.jpg|thumb|[[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan]]'s Imperial edict ([[Firman]]) in [[Persian language]] with two bilingual [[Seal (East Asia)|East Asian-style seals]] in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]].]]
The Ilkhanate also helped to pave the way for the later [[Safavid]] dynastic state, and ultimately the modern country of Iran. Hulagu's conquests had also opened Iran to Chinese influence from the east. This, combined with patronage from his successors, would develop Iran's distinctive excellence in architecture. Under the Ilkhans, Iranian historians also moved from writing in Arabic to writing in their native Persian tongue.<ref>Francis Robinson, ''The Mughal Emperors and the Islamic Dynasties of India, Iran and Central Asia'', pp. 19, 36</ref>

The rudiments of [[double-entry accounting]] were practiced in the Ilkhanate; [[merdiban]] was then adopted by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. These developments were independent from the accounting practices used in Europe.<ref>Cigdem Solas, ''ACCOUNTING SYSTEM PRACTICED IN THE NEAR EAST DURING THE PERIOD 1220–1350'', based on the book ''RISALE-I FELEKIYYE'', ''The Accounting Historians Journal'', Vol. 21, No. 1 (June 1994), pp. 117–135</ref> This accounting system was adopted primarily as the result of socio-economic necessities created by the agricultural and fiscal reforms of Ghazan Khan in 1295–1304.

===Ilkhan as a tribal title in 19th/20th century Iran===
The title ilkhan resurfaced among the [[Qashqai people|Qashqai]] nomads of southern Iran in the 19th century. [[Jan Mohammad Khan]] started using it in 1818/19, and this was continued by all the following Qashqai leaders. The last Qashqai ilkhan was Nasir Khan, who in 1954 was pushed into exile after his support of [[Mohammad Mosaddegh]]. When he returned during the [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution]] in 1979, he could not regain his previous position and died in 1984 as the last Ilkhan of the Qashqai.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iranicaonline.org/|title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica|first=Encyclopaedia Iranica|last=Foundation|website=iranicaonline.org}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:OljeituToPhilippeLeBel1305.jpg|1305 letter of the Ilkhanid Mongol [[öljaitü]] (official square red stamp of the Ilkhanate).
File:GhazanSeal1302LetterToBonifaceVIII.JPG|Seal of [[Ghazan]]
</gallery>

==Ilkhans==
{{Division of the Mongol Empire}}
{{History of the Mongols}}
{{History of Iran}}
===House of Hulagu (1256–1335; Ilkhanate Mongol kings)===
*[[Hulagu Khan]] (1256–1265)
*[[Abaqa Khan]] (1265–1282)
*[[Teguder|Ahmad Tegüder]] (1282–1284)
*[[Arghun]] (1284–1291)
*[[Gaykhatu]] (1291–1295)
*[[Baydu]] (1295)
*[[Mahmud Ghazan]] (1295–1304)
*[[Öljaitü|Muhammad Khodabandeh (Oljeitu or Öljaitü)]] (1304–1316)
*[[Abu Sa'id (Ilkhanid dynasty)|Abu Sa'id Bahadur]] (1316–1335)

After the Ilkhanate, the regional states established during the disintegration of the Ilkhanate raised their own candidates as claimants.

===House of Ariq Böke===
*[[Arpa Ke'un|Arpa Ke'ün]] (1335–1336)

===House of Hulagu (1336–1357)===
*[[Musa (Ilkhanid dynasty)|Musa]] (1336–1337) (puppet of 'Ali Padshah of Baghdad)
*[[Muhammad Khan (Ilkhan)|Muhammad]] (1336–1338) ([[Jalayirids|Jalayirid]] puppet)
*[[Sati Beg]] (1338–1339) ([[Chobanids|Chobanid]] puppet)
*[[Suleiman Khan|Sulayman]] (1339–1343) (Chobanid puppet, recognized by the [[Sarbadars]] 1341–1343)
*[[Jahan Temür]] (1339–1340) (Jalayirid puppet)
*[[Anusirvan|Anushirwan]] (1343–1356) (Chobanid puppet)
* [[Ghazan II]] (1356–1357) (known only from coinage)

===House of Hasar===
''Claimants from eastern Persia (Khurasan):''
*[[Togha Temür]] (c. 1338–1353) (recognized by the [[Kartids]] 1338–1349; by the Jalayirids 1338–1339, 1340–1344; by the Sarbadars 1338–1341, 1344, 1353)
* Luqman (1353–1388) (son of Togha Temür and the protégé of [[Timur]])

==Family tree (House of Hulagu)==
{{Ilkhanate family tree}}

===Genealogy of Ulus of Hülegü===
{{Chart top|width=100%|collapsed=no|House of [[Borjigin]]}}
{|- valign=top
| colspan=100% style="text-align:left" |
{{Color sample|border=#408080|#white; border-width:2px}} [[Khamag Mongol]]/[[Mongol Empire]]<br>
{{Color sample|border=#C02E1F|#white; border-width:2px}} [[Il-Khanate]]
|}
{{Tree chart/start|align=center|style=font-size:90%}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
|A01=[[Yesugei|Yesügei]] <br>{{r.|1161|1171}}
|boxstyle_ A01 =border-color:#408080
}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | |}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A01 | | | | | | | | | | A02 | |
|A01='''[[Genghis Khan|Temüjin]]''' <br>{{r.|1206|1227}}
|A02=[[Qasar|Jochi-Ghasar]]
|boxstyle_ A01 =border-color:#408080
}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | |}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A01 | | | | | | | | | | A02 | |
|A01=[[Tolui]] <br>''[[Regent]]'' <br>{{r.|1227|1229}}
|A02=Tur
|boxstyle_ A01 =border-color:#408080
}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | |}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A02 | | A03 | |
|A01='''[[Hulagu Khan|Hülegü]]''' <br>{{r.|1256|1265}}
|A02='''[[Ariq Böke|Ariq-Böke]]''' <br>{{r.|1259|1264}}
|A03=Ibugan
|boxstyle_ A01 =border-color:#C02E1F
|boxstyle_ A02 =border-color:#408080
}}
{{Tree chart| | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | | |!| | |}}
{{Tree chart| | A01 | | | | | | A02 | | A03 | | A04 | | A05 | | A06 | | A07 | |
|A01=[[Yoshmut]]
|A02='''[[Abaqa Khan|Abaqa]]''' <br>{{r.|1265|1282}}
|A03='''[[Tekuder|Tegüder]]''' <br>{{r.|1282|1284}}
|A04=Taraqai
|A05=[[Möngke Temür (Ilkhanate)|Möngke-Temür]]
|A06=Malik-Timur
|A07=Imugan
|boxstyle_ A02 =border-color:#C02E1F
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{{Tree chart| | |!| | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | |}}
{{Tree chart| | A01 | | | | | | A02 | | A03 | | A04 | | A05 | | A06 | | A07 | |
|A01=Sogai
|A02='''[[Arghun]]''' <br>{{r.|1284|1291}}
|A03='''[[Gaykhatu|Qayqatu]]''' <br>{{r.|1291|1295}}
|A04='''[[Baydu]]''' <br>{{r.|1295|1295}}
|A05=Ambarchi
|A06=Mingqan
|A07=Baba
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{{Tree chart| | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | |}}
{{Tree chart| | A01 | | A02 | | A03 | | A04 | | A05 | | A06 | | A07 | | A08 | |
|A01=Yusuf-Shah
|A02='''[[Ghazan]]''' <br>{{r.|1295|1304}}
|A03='''[[Öljaitü]]''' <br>{{r.|1304|1316}}
|A04=Ala-Frang
|A05=Ali
|A06=Timur
|A07=Söse
|A08=Sutay
|boxstyle_ A02 =border-color:#C02E1F
|boxstyle_ A03 =border-color:#C02E1F
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{{Tree chart| | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | |}}
{{Tree chart| | A01 | | A02 | | A03 | | A04 | | A05 | | A06 | | A07 | | A08 | |
|A01='''[[Suleiman Khan|Sulayman]]''' <br>{{r.|1339|1343}}
|A02='''[[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan|Abu Sa'id]]''' <br>{{r.|1316|1335}}
|A03='''[[Sati Beg|Sati-Beg]]''' <br>{{r.|1338|1339}}
|A04='''[[Jahan Temür|Jahan-Timur]]''' <br>{{r.|1339|1340}}
|A05='''[[Musa (Ilkhanid dynasty)|Musa]]''' <br>{{r.|1336|1336}}
|A06=Yul-Qutluq
|A07='''[[Arpa Ke'un|Arpa]]''' <br>{{r.|1335|1336}}
|A08='''[[Togha Temür|Taghay-Timur]]''' <br>{{r.|1335|1353}}
|boxstyle_ A01 =border-color:#C02E1F
|boxstyle_ A02 =border-color:#C02E1F
|boxstyle_ A03 =border-color:#C02E1F
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|boxstyle_ A05 =border-color:#C02E1F
|boxstyle_ A07 =border-color:#C02E1F
|boxstyle_ A08 =border-color:#C02E1F
}}
{{Tree chart| | |:| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | |}}
{{Tree chart| | A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A02 | | A03 | | A04 | |
|A01='''[[Anushirwan]]''' <br>{{r.|1343|1357}}
|A02='''[[Muhammad Khan (Ilkhan)|Muhammad]]''' <br>{{r.|1336|1338}}
|A03='''[[Amir Vali|Amir Wali]]''' <br>{{r.|1353|1384}}
|A04='''Luqman''' <br>{{r.|1384|1388}}
|boxstyle_ A01 =border-color:#C02E1F
|boxstyle_ A02 =border-color:#C02E1F
|boxstyle_ A03 =border-color:#C02E1F
|boxstyle_ A04 =border-color:#C02E1F
}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | |}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A01 | |
|A01='''Pirak''' <br>{{r.|1388|1406}}
|boxstyle_ A01 =border-color:#C02E1F
}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | |}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A01 | |
|A01='''Sultan-Ali''' <br>{{r.|1406|1407}}
|boxstyle_ A01 =border-color:#C02E1F
}}
{{Tree chart/end}}
{{Chart bottom}}

==See also==
*[[Division of the Mongol Empire]]
*[[List of Mongol states]]
*[[List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans]]	
*[[List of kings of Persia|Full list of Iranian Kingdoms]]
*[[Sarbadars]], separatist movement of the late Ilkhanid era
*[[Hazaras]], ethnic group in today's Afghanistan

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* {{cite book |author-link=Thomas T. Allsen |first=Thomas |last=Allsen |editor1=Denis C. Twitchett |editor2=Herbert Franke |editor2-link=Herbert Franke (sinologist) |editor3=John King Fairbank |chapter=The rise of the Mongolian empire and Mongolian rule in north China |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year=1994 |pages=321–413 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-24331-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Arjomand|first=Saïd Amir Arjomand|authorlink=Saïd Amir Arjomand|title=Revolutions of the End of Time: Apocalypse, Revolution and Reaction in the Persianate World |date=2022 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-51715-8}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | last = Ashraf | first = Ahmad | title = Iranian identity iii. Medieval Islamic period | url = https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-iii-medieval-islamic-period | year = 2006 | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XIII, Fasc. 5 | pages = 507–522 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Atwood |first1=Christopher Pratt |title=Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol empire |date=2004 |publisher=Facts On File |location=New York |isbn=0-8160-4671-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Babaie|first=Sussan|year=2019|title=Iran After the Mongols |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-78831-528-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Blair |first=Sheila S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=huOBwihhwyQC |title=Islam: Art and Architecture |last2=Bloom |first2=Jonathan M. |publisher=h.f.ullmann |year=2011 |isbn=9783848003808 |editor-last=Hattstein |editor-first=Markus |location= |pages=386–405 |language=en |chapter=Islamic Mongols: from the Mongol Invasions to the Ilkhanids |editor-last2=Delius |editor-first2=Peter}}
* {{Cite book |last=Blair |first=Sheila S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC |title=The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250–1800 |last2=Bloom |first2=Jonathan M. |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1995 |isbn=9780300064650 |location= |pages= |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |title=The Sarre Qazwīnī: An Early Aq Qoyunlu Manuscript? |first=Julie |last=Badiee |author-link=Julie Oeming Badiee|journal=Ars Orientalis |volume= 14 |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1984 }}
* C.E. Bosworth, ''The New Islamic Dynasties'', New York, 1996.
* {{cite book |last1=Farhad |first1=Massumeh |author-link=Massumeh Farhad |title=The Art of the Qu'ran: Treasures from the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts |last2=Rettig |first2=Simon |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-58834-578-3 |location=Washington, DC}}
* {{cite book | title = The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion | year = 2017 | publisher = Yale University Press | last = Jackson | first = Peter | pages = 1–448 | isbn = 9780300227284 | jstor = 10.3366/j.ctt1n2tvq0 }} {{registration required}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kamola |first=Stefan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HkxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA310 |title=Making Mongol History: Rashid al-Din and the JamiE al-Tawarikh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4744-2143-0 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last= Lane |first=George E. |year=2012|editor1-last=Daryaee |editor1-first=Touraj |editor1-link=Touraj Daryaee |title= The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=The Mongols in Iran |pages=1–432|isbn=978-0-19-987575-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Limbert|first=John|year=2004|title=Shiraz in the Age of Hafez |publisher=University of Washington Press|pages=1–182|isbn=9780295802886}}
* Kadoi, Yuka. (2009) ''Islamic Chinoiserie: The Art of Mongol Iran'', Edinburgh Studies in Islamic Art, Edinburgh. {{ISBN|9780748635825}}.
* {{cite book |chapter=Ilkhanid Rule and Its Contributions to Iranian Political Culture |pages=68–82 |first=Bert G. |last=Fragner |editor-last=Komaroff|editor-first=Linda|year=2006|title=Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan |publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004243408}}
* {{Cite book |last=May |first=Timothy |url= |title=The Mongol Empire |date=2018 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-4236-6 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Melville|first=Charles|year=2012|title=Persian Historiography: A History of Persian Literature |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|pages=1–784|isbn=9780857723598}}
* R. Amitai-Preiss: ''Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War 1260–1281''. Cambridge, 1995.
* {{citation|last=Vernadsky|first=George|year=1953|title=The Mongols and Russia|publisher=Yale University Press}}
* {{cite book |last1=Vásáry |first1=István |editor1-last=Csató |editor1-first=Éva Á. |editor2-last=Johanson |editor2-first=Lars |editor3-last=Róna-Tas |editor3-first=Andrá |editor4-last=Utas |editor4-first=Bo |title=Turks and Iranians. Interactions in Language and History: The Gunnar Jarring Memorial Program at the Swedish Collegium for Advanced Study |date=2016 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-10537-8 |pages=141–152 |edition=1 |chapter=The Role and Function of Mongolian and Turkic in Ilkhanid Iran}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Ilkhanate}}
* [http://www.iranicaonline.org/ Encyclopedia Iranica.] Contains more information on the Ilkhanate.
* [http://tokakte.dk/ Searchable database for Ilkhanid coins]

{{Iran topics}}
{{Mongol Empire}}
{{Empires}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ilkhanate| ]]
[[Category:13th century in Iran]]
[[Category:14th century in Iran]]
[[Category:Medieval history of the Caucasus]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Syria]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Buddhist dynasties]]
[[Category:Muslim dynasties]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1256]]
[[Category:Khanates]]
[[Category:1256 establishments in the Mongol Empire]]
[[Category:1350s disestablishments in the Mongol Empire]]
[[Category:Mongol states]]
[[Category:Hulagu Khan]]
[[Category:Former monarchies]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of West Asia]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 1330s]]