Editing Materials science

{{short description|Research of materials}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=August 2023}}

[[File:Diamond cuboctahedron.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A [[diamond]] [[cuboctahedron]] showing seven [[crystallographic]] planes, imaged with [[scanning electron microscopy]]]]

[[File:Materials classification.svg|thumb|alt=Six classes of conventional engineering materials.|Six classes of conventional engineering materials]]

'''Materials science''' is an [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] field of researching and discovering [[material]]s. '''Materials engineering''' is an [[engineering]] field of finding uses for materials in other fields and industries.

The intellectual origins of materials science stem from the [[Age of Enlightenment]], when researchers began to use analytical thinking from [[chemistry]], [[physics]], maths and [[engineering]] to understand ancient, [[Empirical relationship|phenomenological]] observations in [[metallurgy]] and [[mineralogy]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eddy |first1=Matthew Daniel |url=https://www.academia.edu/1112014 |via=Academia.edu |title=The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School 1750–1800 |date=2008 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903230852/http://www.academia.edu/1112014/The_Language_of_Mineralogy_John_Walker_Chemistry_and_the_Edinburgh_Medical_School_1750-1800_2008_ |archive-date=2015-09-03 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="smith">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Cyril Stanley |title=A Search for Structure |date=1981 |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0262191913 |author-link=Cyril Stanley Smith}}</ref> Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering. As such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Beginning in the 1940s, materials science began to be more widely recognized as a specific and distinct field of science and engineering, and major technical universities around the world  dedicated schools for its study.

Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material (''processing'') influences its structure, and also the [[Material properties|material's properties]] and performance. The understanding of processing   structure properties relationships is called the materials paradigm. This [[paradigm]] is used for advanced understanding in a variety of research areas, including [[nanotechnology]], [[biomaterial]]s, and [[metallurgy]].

Materials science is also an important part of [[forensic engineering]] and [[failure analysis]]{{snd}} investigating materials, products, structures or their components, which fail or do not function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. Such investigations are key to understanding. For example, the causes of various [[aviation accidents and incidents]].

==History==
{{Main|History of materials science}}
[[File:Sword bronze age (2nd version).jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|A late [[Bronze Age sword]] or dagger blade]]
The material of choice of a given era is often a defining point. Phases such as [[Stone Age]], [[Bronze Age]], [[Iron Age]], and [[Industrial Revolution|Steel Age]] are historic, if arbitrary examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of [[ceramic]]s and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied sciences.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Defonseka |first=Chris |title=Polymer Fillers and Stiffening Agents: Applications and Non-traditional Alternatives |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-11-066999-2 |location=Berlin |pages=31 |language=en}}</ref> Modern materials science evolved directly from [[metallurgy]], which itself evolved from the use of fire. A major breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century, when the American scientist [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]] demonstrated that the [[thermodynamic]] properties related to [[atom]]ic structure in various [[phase (matter)|phases]] are related to the physical properties of a material.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Psillos |first1=Dimitris |title=Iterative Design of Teaching-Learning Sequences: Introducing the Science of Materials in European Schools |last2=Kariotoglou |first2=Petros |publisher=Springer |year=2015 |isbn=978-94-007-7807-8 |location=Dordrecht |pages=79 |language=en}}</ref> Important elements of modern materials science were products of the [[Space Race]]; the understanding and [[engineering]] of metallic [[alloy]]s, and [[silica]] and [[carbon]] materials, used in building space vehicles enabling the exploration of space. Materials science has driven, and been driven by the development of revolutionary technologies such as [[rubber]]s, [[plastic]]s, [[semiconductor]]s, and [[biomaterial]]s.

Before the 1960s (and in some cases decades after), many eventual ''materials science'' departments were ''metallurgy'' or ''ceramics engineering'' departments, reflecting the 19th and early 20th-century emphasis on metals and ceramics. The growth of material science in the United States was catalyzed in part by the [[DARPA|Advanced Research Projects Agency]], which funded a series of university-hosted laboratories in the early 1960s, "''to expand the national program of basic research and training in the materials sciences''."<ref name=martin-pip>{{cite journal|last=Martin|first=Joseph D. |title=What's in a Name Change? Solid State Physics, Condensed Matter Physics, and Materials Science|journal=Physics in Perspective|date=2015|volume=17|issue=1|doi=10.1007/s00016-014-0151-7|pages=3–32|bibcode= 2015PhP....17....3M|s2cid=117809375 |url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/29168/1/29168.pdf }}</ref> In comparison with mechanical engineering, the [[Nascent state|nascent]] materials science field focused on addressing materials from the macro-level and on the approach that materials are designed on the basis of knowledge of behavior at the microscopic level.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Channell |first=David F. |title=A History of Technoscience: Erasing the Boundaries between Science and Technology |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-351-97740-1 |location=Oxon |pages=225 |language=en}}</ref> Due to the expanded knowledge of the link between atomic and molecular processes as well as the overall properties of materials, the design of materials came to be based on specific desired properties.<ref name=":0" /> The materials science field has since broadened to include every class of materials, including ceramics, [[polymer]]s, semiconductors, [[magnetism|magnetic]] materials, biomaterials, and [[nanomaterial]]s, generally classified into three distinct groups- ceramics, metals, and polymers. The prominent change in materials science during the recent decades is active usage of computer simulations to find new materials, predict properties and understand phenomena.

==Fundamentals==
{{anchor|Fundamentals of materials science}}
{{anchor|Fundamentals of materials science|materials paradigm}}
[[File:Materials science tetrahedron;structure, processing, performance, and proprerties.svg|thumb|upright=1.14|The materials paradigm represented in the form of a tetrahedron]]
A material is defined as a substance (most often a solid, but other condensed phases can also be included) that is intended to be used for certain applications.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nmat/authors/index.html "For Authors: Nature Materials"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100801234616/http://www.nature.com/nmat/authors/index.html |date=2010-08-01 }}</ref>  There are a myriad of materials around us; they can be found in anything from<ref>Callister, Jr.,  Rethwisch. "Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction" (8th ed.). John Wiley and Sons, 2009 pp.5–6</ref> new and advanced materials that are being developed include [[nanomaterials]], [[biomaterial]]s,<ref>Callister, Jr.,  Rethwisch. Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction (8th ed.)uildings and cars to spacecraft. The main classes of materials are [[metal]]s, [[semiconductor]]s, [[ceramic]]s and [[polymer]]s.. John Wiley and Sons, 2009 pp.10–12</ref> and [[Photovoltaic cell|energy materials]] to name a few.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Goodenough |first1=John B. |last2=Kim |first2=Youngsik |date=2009-08-28 |title=Challenges for Rechargeable Li Batteries |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cm901452z |journal=Chemistry of Materials |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=587–603 |doi=10.1021/cm901452z |issn=0897-4756}}</ref>

The basis of materials science is studying the interplay between the structure of materials, the processing methods to make that material, and the resulting material properties. The complex combination of these produce the performance of a material in a specific application. Many features across many length scales impact material performance, from the constituent chemical elements, its [[microstructure]], and macroscopic features from processing. Together with the laws of [[thermodynamics]] and [[kinetics (physics)|kinetics]] materials scientists aim to understand and improve materials.

===Structure===
Structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science. The very definition of the field holds that it is concerned with the investigation of "the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zagorodni |first=Andrei A. |title=Ion Exchange Materials: Properties and Applications |publisher=Elsevier |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-08-044552-6 |location=Amsterdam |pages=xi |language=en}}</ref> Materials science examines the structure of materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale.<ref name=":1" /> [[Characterization (materials science)|Characterization]] is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material. This involves methods such as diffraction with [[X-ray]]s, [[electron]]s or [[neutron]]s, and various forms of [[spectroscopy]] and [[chemical analysis]] such as [[Raman spectroscopy]], [[energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy|energy-dispersive spectroscopy]], [[chromatography]], [[thermal analysis]], [[electron microscope]] analysis, etc.

Structure is studied in the following levels.

====Atomic structure====
Atomic structure deals with the atoms of the material, and how they are arranged to give rise to molecules, crystals, etc. Much of the electrical, magnetic and chemical properties of materials arise from this level of structure. The length scales involved are in angstroms ([[Angstrom|Å]]). The chemical bonding and atomic arrangement (crystallography) are fundamental to studying the properties and behavior of any material.

=====Bonding=====
{{Main|Chemical bonding}}
To obtain a full understanding of the material structure and how it relates to its properties, the materials scientist must study how the different atoms, ions and molecules are arranged and bonded to each other. This involves the study and use of [[quantum chemistry]] or [[quantum physics]]. [[Solid-state physics]], [[solid-state chemistry]] and [[physical chemistry]] are also involved in the study of bonding and structures.

=====Crystallography=====
{{Main|Crystallography}}
[[File:Perovskite.jpg|thumb|Crystal structure of a perovskite with a chemical formula ABX<sub>3</sub><ref>{{cite journal |title= Energetics and Crystal Chemical Systematics among Ilmenite, Lithium Niobate, and Perovskite Structures |author= A. Navrotsky |journal= Chem. Mater. |date= 1998 |volume= 10 |issue= 10 |pages= 2787–2793 |doi= 10.1021/cm9801901}}</ref>]]
Crystallography is the science that examines the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids. Crystallography is a useful tool for materials scientists. One of the fundamental concepts regarding the crystal structure of a material includes the [[unit cell]], which is the smallest unit of a crystal lattice (space lattice) that repeats to make up the macroscopic crystal structure. Most common structural materials include [[Parallelepiped|parallelpiped]] and hexagonal lattice types.<ref>Callister, Jr.,  Rethwisch. "Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction" (8th ed.) John Wiley and Sons, 2009</ref> In [[single crystal]]s, the effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically, because the natural shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure. Further, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects. The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding [[crystallographic defect]]s. Examples of crystal defects consist of dislocations including edges, screws, vacancies, self interstitials, and more that are linear, planar, and three dimensional types of defects.<ref>Callister, Jr.,  Rethwisch. "Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction" (8th ed.). John Wiley and Sons, 2009</ref> New and advanced materials that are being developed include [[nanomaterials]], [[biomaterial]]s.<ref>Callister, Jr.,  Rethwisch. Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction (8th ed.)</ref> Mostly, materials do not occur as a single crystal, but in polycrystalline form, as an aggregate of small crystals or grains with different orientations. Because of this, the [[Powder diffraction|powder diffraction method]], which uses diffraction patterns of polycrystalline samples with a large number of crystals, plays an important role in structural determination. Most materials have a crystalline structure, but some important materials do not exhibit regular crystal structure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gavezzotti |first=Angelo |date=1994-10-01 |title=Are Crystal Structures Predictable? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ar00046a004 |journal=Accounts of Chemical Research |volume=27 |issue=10 |pages=309–314 |doi=10.1021/ar00046a004 |issn=0001-4842}}</ref> [[Polymer]]s display varying degrees of crystallinity, and many are completely non-crystalline. [[Glass]], some ceramics, and many natural materials are [[Amorphous solid|amorphous]], not possessing any long-range order in their atomic arrangements. The study of polymers combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to give thermodynamic and mechanical descriptions of physical properties.

====Nanostructure====
{{Main|Nanostructure}}
[[File:Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png|thumb|left|upright=0.7|[[Buckminsterfullerene]] nanostructure]]
Materials, which atoms and molecules form constituents in the nanoscale (i.e., they form nanostructures) are called nanomaterials. Nanomaterials are the subject of intense research in the materials science community due to the unique properties that they exhibit.

Nanostructure deals with objects and structures that are in the 1 – 100&nbsp;nm range.<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=BJIOBN00000200000400MR17000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=Yes |author= Cristina Buzea |author2= Ivan Pacheco |author3= Kevin Robbie |name-list-style= amp |title= Nanomaterials and Nanoparticles: Sources and Toxicity |journal= Biointerphases |volume= 2 |date= 2007 |pages= MR17–MR71 |doi= 10.1116/1.2815690 |pmid= 20419892 |issue= 4 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://archive.today/20120703014917/http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=BJIOBN00000200000400MR17000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=Yes |archive-date= 2012-07-03 |arxiv= 0801.3280 |s2cid= 35457219 }}</ref>  In many materials, atoms or molecules agglomerate to form objects at the nanoscale. This causes many interesting electrical, magnetic, optical, and mechanical properties. In describing nanostructures, it is necessary to differentiate between the number of dimensions on the [[Nanoscopic scale|nanoscale]]. [[Nanotextured surface]]s have ''one dimension'' on the nanoscale, i.e., only the thickness of the surface of an object is between 0.1 and 100&nbsp;nm. Nanotubes have ''two dimensions'' on the nanoscale, i.e., the diameter of the tube is between 0.1 and 100&nbsp;nm; its length could be much greater.

Finally, spherical [[nanoparticle]]s have ''three dimensions'' on the nanoscale, i.e., the particle is between 0.1 and 100&nbsp;nm in each spatial dimension. The terms nanoparticles and [[ultrafine particle]]s (UFP) often are used synonymously although UFP can reach into the micrometre range. The term 'nanostructure' is often used, when referring to magnetic technology. Nanoscale structure in biology is often called [[ultrastructure]].

====Microstructure====
{{Main|Microstructure}}
[[File:Pearlite.jpg|thumb|right|Microstructure of pearlite]]
Microstructure is defined as the structure of a prepared surface or thin foil of material as revealed by a microscope above 25× magnification. It deals with objects from 100&nbsp;nm to a few cm. The microstructure of a material (which can be broadly classified into metallic, polymeric, ceramic and composite) can strongly influence physical properties such as strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance, high/low temperature behavior, wear resistance, and so on.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Filip |first1=R |last2=Kubiak |first2=K |last3=Ziaja |first3=W |last4=Sieniawski |first4=J |date=2003 |title=The effect of microstructure on the mechanical properties of two-phase titanium alloys |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0924-0136(02)00248-0 |journal=Journal of Materials Processing Technology |volume=133 |issue=1–2 |pages=84–89 |doi=10.1016/s0924-0136(02)00248-0 |issn=0924-0136}}</ref> Most of the traditional materials (such as metals and ceramics) are microstructured.

The manufacture of a perfect [[crystal]] of a material is physically impossible. For example, any crystalline material will contain [[crystallographic defect|defects]] such as [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitates]], grain boundaries ([[Hall–Petch|Hall–Petch relationship]]), vacancies, interstitial atoms or substitutional atoms.<ref>{{Citation |title=Crystal Structure Defects and Imperfections |date=2021-10-01 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.31399/asm.tb.ciktmse.t56020001 |work=Crystalline Imperfections: Key Topics in Materials Science and Engineering |pages=1–12 |access-date=2023-10-29 |publisher=ASM International|doi=10.31399/asm.tb.ciktmse.t56020001 |isbn=978-1-62708-389-8 |s2cid=244023491 }}</ref> The microstructure of materials reveals these larger defects and advances in simulation have allowed an increased understanding of how defects can be used to enhance the material properties.

====Macrostructure====
Macrostructure is the appearance of a material in the scale millimeters to meters, it is the structure of the material as seen with the naked eye.

===Properties===
{{Main|List of materials properties}}
Materials exhibit myriad properties, including the following.
:*Mechanical properties, see [[Strength of materials]]
:*Chemical properties, see [[Chemistry]]
:*Electrical properties, see [[Electricity]]
:*Thermal properties, see [[Thermodynamics]]
:*Optical properties, see [[Optics]] and [[Photonics]]
:*Magnetic properties, see [[Magnetism]]
The properties of a material determine its usability and hence its engineering application.

===Processing===
Synthesis and processing involves the creation of a material with the desired micro-nanostructure. A material cannot be used in industry if no economically viable production method for it has been developed. Therefore, developing processing methods for materials that are reasonably effective and cost-efficient is vital to the field of materials science. Different materials require different processing or synthesis methods. For example, the processing of metals has historically defined eras such as the [[Bronze Age]] and [[Iron Age]] and is studied under the branch of materials science named ''physical [[metallurgy]]''. Chemical and physical methods are also used to synthesize other materials such as [[polymer]]s, [[ceramic]]s, [[semiconductor]]s, and [[thin film]]s. As of the early 21st century, new methods are being developed to synthesize nanomaterials such as [[graphene]].

===Thermodynamics===
{{Main|Thermodynamics}}
[[File:Eutektikum new.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|A phase diagram for a binary system displaying a eutectic point]]
Thermodynamics is concerned with [[heat]] and [[temperature]], and their relation to [[energy]] and [[Work (thermodynamics)|work]]. It defines [[macroscopic scale|macroscopic]] variables, such as [[internal energy]], [[entropy]], and [[pressure]], that partly describe a body of matter or radiation. It states that the behavior of those variables is subject to general constraints common to all materials. These general constraints are expressed in the four laws of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics describes the bulk behavior of the body, not the microscopic behaviors of the very large numbers of its microscopic constituents, such as molecules. The behavior of these microscopic particles is described by, and the laws of thermodynamics are derived from, [[statistical mechanics]].

The study of thermodynamics is fundamental to materials science. It forms the foundation to treat general phenomena in materials science and engineering, including chemical reactions, magnetism, polarizability, and elasticity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Liu |first=Zi-Kui |date=2020 |title=Computational thermodynamics and its applications |journal=Acta Materialia |volume=200 |pages=745–792 |doi=10.1016/j.actamat.2020.08.008 |bibcode=2020AcMat.200..745L |s2cid=225430517 |issn=1359-6454|doi-access=free }}</ref> It explains fundamental tools such as [[phase diagram]]s and concepts such as phase [[Thermodynamic Equilibrium|equilibrium]].

===Kinetics===
{{Main|Chemical kinetics}}
[[Chemical kinetics]] is the study of the rates at which systems that are out of equilibrium change under the influence of various forces. When applied to materials science, it deals with how a material changes with time (moves from non-equilibrium state to equilibrium state) due to application of a certain field. It details the rate of various processes evolving in materials including shape, size, composition and structure. [[Diffusion]] is important in the study of kinetics as this is the most common mechanism by which materials undergo change.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kärger |first1=Jörg |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9783527651276 |title=Diffusion in Nanoporous Materials |last2=Ruthven |first2=Douglas M. |last3=Theodorou |first3=Doros N. |date=2012-04-25 |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/9783527651276 |isbn=978-3-527-31024-1}}</ref> Kinetics is essential in processing of materials because, among other things, it details how the microstructure changes with application of heat.

==Research==
Materials science is a highly active area of research. Together with materials science departments, [[physics]], [[chemistry]], and many [[engineering]] departments are involved in materials research. Materials research covers a broad range of topics; the following non-exhaustive list highlights a few important research areas.

===Nanomaterials===
{{Main|Nanomaterials}}
[[File:CNTSEM.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|A [[scanning electron microscopy]] image of carbon nanotubes bundles]]
Nanomaterials describe, in principle, materials of which a single unit is sized (in at least one dimension) between 1 and 1000 nanometers (10<sup>−9</sup> meter), but is usually 1&nbsp;nm – 100&nbsp;nm. Nanomaterials research takes a materials science based approach to [[nanotechnology]], using advances in materials [[metrology]] and synthesis, which have been developed in support of [[microfabrication]] research. Materials with structure at the nanoscale often have unique optical, electronic, or mechanical properties. The field of nanomaterials is loosely organized, like the traditional field of chemistry, into organic (carbon-based) nanomaterials, such as fullerenes, and inorganic nanomaterials based on other elements, such as silicon. Examples of nanomaterials include [[fullerene]]s, [[carbon nanotube]]s, nanocrystals, etc.

===Biomaterials===
{{Main|Biomaterial}}
[[File:NautilusCutawayLogarithmicSpiral.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|The iridescent [[nacre]] inside a [[nautilus]] shell]]
A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with [[biological system]]s.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Morhardt |first1=Duncan R. |title=Role of Biomaterials in Surgery |date=2019-01-01 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine |pages=315–330 |editor-last=Reis |editor-first=Rui L. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128012383658452 |access-date=2024-04-28 |place=Oxford |publisher=Academic Press |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-801238-3.65845-2 |isbn=978-0-12-813700-0 |last2=Mauney |first2=Joshua R. |last3=Estrada |first3=Carlos R.}}</ref> Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering, and materials science.

Biomaterials can be derived either from nature or synthesized in a laboratory using a variety of chemical approaches using metallic components, [[polymer]]s, [[bioceramic]]s, or [[composite material]]s. They are often intended or adapted for medical applications, such as biomedical devices which perform, augment, or replace a natural function. Such functions may be benign, like being used for a [[heart valve]], or may be [[Biological activity|bioactive]] with a more interactive functionality such as [[hydroxylapatite]]-coated [[hip implant]]s. Biomaterials are also used every day in dental applications, surgery, and drug delivery. For example, a construct with impregnated pharmaceutical products can be placed into the body, which permits the prolonged release of a drug over an extended period of time. A biomaterial may also be an [[autograft]], [[allograft]] or [[xenograft]] used as an [[organ transplant]] material.

===Electronic, optical, and magnetic===
[[File:Split-ring resonator array 10K sq nm.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Negative index metamaterial]]<ref name=APhys1>{{cite journal|last=Shelby |first=R. A. |author2=Smith D.R. |author3=Shultz S. |author4=Nemat-Nasser S.C. |title=Microwave transmission through a two-dimensional, isotropic, left-handed metamaterial |journal=Applied Physics Letters |date=2001 |volume=78 |url=http://people.ee.duke.edu/~drsmith/pubs_smith_group/Shelby_APL_(2001).pdf |issue=4 |doi=10.1063/1.1343489 |page=489 |bibcode=2001ApPhL..78..489S |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618193936/http://people.ee.duke.edu/~drsmith/pubs_smith_group/Shelby_APL_%282001%29.pdf |archive-date=June 18, 2010 }}</ref><ref name=comp>{{cite journal |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.4184 |title=Composite Medium with Simultaneously Negative Permeability and Permittivity |date=2000 |last1=Smith |first1=D. R. |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=84 |pages=4184–7 |pmid=10990641 |first2=WJ |first3=DC |first4=SC |first5=S |issue=18 |last2=Padilla |last3=Vier |last4=Nemat-Nasser |last5=Schultz |bibcode=2000PhRvL..84.4184S |doi-access=free }}</ref>]]
Semiconductors, metals, and ceramics are used today to form highly complex systems, such as integrated electronic circuits, optoelectronic devices, and magnetic and optical mass storage media. These materials form the basis of our modern computing world, and hence research into these materials is of vital importance.

[[Semiconductor]]s are a traditional example of these types of materials. They are materials that have properties that are intermediate between [[Electrical resistivity and conductivity|conductors]] and [[insulator (electricity)|insulators]]. Their electrical conductivities are very sensitive to the concentration of impurities, which allows the use of [[doping (semiconductor)|doping]] to achieve desirable electronic properties. Hence, semiconductors form the basis of the traditional computer.

This field also includes new areas of research such as [[superconductivity|superconducting]] materials, [[spintronics]], [[metamaterial]]s, etc. The study of these materials involves knowledge of materials science and [[solid-state physics]] or [[condensed matter physics]].

===Computational materials science===
{{Main|Computational materials science}}
With continuing increases in computing power, simulating the behavior of materials has become possible. This enables materials scientists to understand behavior and mechanisms, design new materials, and explain properties formerly poorly understood. Efforts surrounding [[integrated computational materials engineering]] are now focusing on combining computational methods with experiments to drastically reduce the time and effort to optimize materials properties for a given application. This involves simulating materials at all length scales, using methods such as [[density functional theory]], [[molecular dynamics]], [[Monte Carlo algorithm|Monte Carlo]], dislocation dynamics, [[Phase field models|phase field]], [[Finite element method|finite element]], and many more.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Jonathan |last2=Marques |first2=Mário R. G. |last3=Botti |first3=Silvana |last4=Marques |first4=Miguel A. L. |date=2019-08-08 |title=Recent advances and applications of machine learning in solid-state materials science |journal=npj Computational Materials |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=83 |doi=10.1038/s41524-019-0221-0 |bibcode=2019npjCM...5...83S |s2cid=199492241 |issn=2057-3960|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Industry==
[[File:Drink containers.png|thumb|329x329px|Beverage containers of all three materials types: ceramic (glass), metal (aluminum), and polymer (plastic).]]
Radical [[Timeline of materials technology|materials advances]] can drive the creation of new products or even new industries, but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used materials. Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial production of materials, processing methods ([[casting]], [[rolling]], [[welding]], [[ion implantation]], [[crystal growth]], [[thin-film deposition]], [[sintering]], [[glassblowing]], etc.), and analytic methods (characterization methods such as [[electron microscopy]], [[X-ray crystallography|X-ray diffraction]], [[calorimetry]], [[Microprobe|nuclear microscopy (HEFIB)]], [[Rutherford backscattering]], [[neutron diffraction]], small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), etc.).

Besides material characterization, the material scientist or engineer also deals with extracting materials and converting them into useful forms. Thus [[ingot]] casting, [[foundry]] methods, [[blast furnace]] extraction, and [[electrolytic process|electrolytic extraction]] are all part of the required knowledge of a materials engineer. Often the presence, absence, or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will greatly affect the final properties of the materials produced. For example, steels are classified based on 1/10 and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying elements they contain. Thus, the extracting and purifying methods used to extract iron in a blast furnace can affect the quality of steel that is produced.

Solid materials are generally grouped into three basic classifications: ceramics, metals, and polymers. This broad classification is based on the empirical makeup and atomic structure of the solid materials, and most solids fall into one of these broad categories.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Callister |first1=William D. |title=Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction |last2=Rethwish |first2=David G. |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2018 |isbn=9780470419977 |edition=10th |location=Hoboken, NJ |pages=12 |language=English}}</ref> An item that is often made from each of these materials types is the beverage container. The material types used for beverage containers accordingly provide different advantages and disadvantages, depending on the material used. Ceramic (glass) containers are optically transparent, impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide, relatively inexpensive, and are easily recycled, but are also heavy and fracture easily. Metal (aluminum alloy) is relatively strong, is a good barrier to the diffusion of carbon dioxide, and is easily recycled. However, the cans are opaque, expensive to produce, and are easily dented and punctured. Polymers (polyethylene plastic) are relatively strong, can be optically transparent, are inexpensive and lightweight, and can be recyclable, but are not as impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide as aluminum and glass.

===Ceramics and glasses===
{{Main|Ceramic}}
[[File:Si3N4bearings.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> ceramic bearing parts]]
Another application of materials science is the study of [[ceramic]]s and [[glass]]es, typically the most brittle materials with industrial relevance. Many ceramics and glasses exhibit covalent or ionic-covalent bonding with SiO<sub>2</sub> ([[Silicon dioxide|silica]]) as a fundamental building block. Ceramics – not to be confused with raw, unfired [[clay]] – are usually seen in crystalline form. The vast majority of commercial glasses contain a metal oxide fused with silica. At the high temperatures used to prepare glass, the material is a viscous liquid which solidifies into a disordered state upon cooling. Windowpanes and eyeglasses are important examples. Fibers of glass are also used for long-range telecommunication and optical transmission. Scratch resistant Corning [[Gorilla Glass]] is a well-known example of the application of materials science to drastically improve the properties of common components.

Engineering ceramics are known for their stiffness and stability under high temperatures, compression and electrical stress. Alumina, [[silicon carbide]], and [[tungsten carbide]] are made from a fine powder of their constituents in a process of sintering with a binder. Hot pressing provides higher density material. Chemical vapor deposition can place a film of a ceramic on another material. Cermets are ceramic particles containing some metals. The wear resistance of tools is derived from cemented carbides with the metal phase of cobalt and nickel typically added to modify properties.

Ceramics can be significantly strengthened for engineering applications using the principle of [[Faber-Evans model|crack deflection]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Faber |first1=K. T. |last2=Evans |first2=A. G. |date=1983-04-01 |title=Crack deflection processes—I. Theory |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-6160%2883%2990046-9 |journal=Acta Metallurgica |language=en |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=565–576 |doi=10.1016/0001-6160(83)90046-9 |issn=0001-6160}}</ref> This process involves the strategic addition of second-phase particles within a ceramic matrix, optimizing their shape, size, and distribution to direct and control crack propagation. This approach enhances fracture toughness, paving the way for the creation of advanced, high-performance ceramics in various industries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Faber |first1=K. T. |last2=Evans |first2=A. G. |date=1983-04-01 |title=Crack deflection processes—II. Experiment |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-6160%2883%2990047-0 |journal=Acta Metallurgica |language=en |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=577–584 |doi=10.1016/0001-6160(83)90047-0 |issn=0001-6160}}</ref>

===Composites===
{{Main|Composite material}}
[[File:Cfaser haarrp.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|A 6&nbsp;μm diameter carbon filament (running from bottom left to top right) sitting atop the much larger human hair]]
Another application of materials science in industry is making [[composite material]]s. These are structured materials composed of two or more macroscopic phases.

Applications range from structural elements such as steel-reinforced concrete, to the thermal insulating tiles, which play a key and integral role in NASA's [[Space Shuttle thermal protection system]], which is used to protect the surface of the shuttle from the heat of re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. One example is [[reinforced Carbon-Carbon]] (RCC), the light gray material, which withstands re-entry temperatures up to {{convert|1510|C|F}} and protects the Space Shuttle's wing leading edges and nose cap.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Green |first=D. |title=MILCOM 2005 – 2005 IEEE Military Communications Conference |chapter=IPV6 BEnefits to the Warfighter |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/milcom.2005.1606007 |year=2005 |pages=1–6 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/milcom.2005.1606007|isbn=0-7803-9393-7 |s2cid=31152759 }}</ref> RCC is a laminated composite material made from [[graphite]] [[rayon]] cloth and impregnated with a [[phenolic resin]]. After [[Curing (chemistry)|curing]] at high temperature in an [[autoclave]], the [[laminate]] is [[Pyrolysis|pyrolized]] to convert the resin to carbon, impregnated with [[furfuryl alcohol]] in a vacuum chamber, and cured-pyrolized to convert the furfuryl alcohol to carbon. To provide oxidation resistance for reusability, the outer layers of the RCC are converted to [[silicon carbide]].

Other examples can be seen in the "plastic" casings of television sets, cell-phones and so on. These plastic casings are usually a composite material made up of a [[thermoplastic]] matrix such as [[acrylonitrile butadiene styrene]] (ABS) in which [[calcium carbonate]] chalk, [[talc]], [[glass fiber]]s or [[carbon fiber]]s have been added for added strength, bulk, or [[Electrostatics#Static electricity and chemical industry|electrostatic dispersion]]. These additions may be termed reinforcing fibers, or dispersants, depending on their purpose.

===Polymers===
{{Main|Polymer}}
[[File:Polypropylene.svg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|The repeating unit of the polymer polypropylene]]
[[File:Expanded polystyrene foam dunnage.jpg|thumb|Expanded polystyrene polymer packaging]]
[[Polymer]]s are chemical compounds made up of a large number of identical components linked together like chains.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-10-13 |title=Explainer: What are polymers? |url=https://www.snexplores.org/article/explainer-what-are-polymers |access-date=2024-05-02 |language=en-US}}</ref> Polymers are the raw materials (the resins) used to make what are commonly called plastics and [[rubber]]. Plastics and rubber are the final product, created after one or more polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing, which is then shaped into a final form. Plastics in former and in current widespread use include [[polyethylene]], [[polypropylene]], [[polyvinyl chloride]] (PVC), [[polystyrene]], [[nylon]]s, [[polyester]]s, [[acrylic resin|acrylics]], [[polyurethane]]s, and [[polycarbonate]]s. Rubbers include natural rubber, [[styrene-butadiene]] rubber, [[chloroprene]], and [[butadiene rubber]]. Plastics are generally classified as ''commodity'', ''specialty'' and [[engineering plastic|''engineering'' plastics]].

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is widely used, inexpensive, and annual production quantities are large. It lends itself to a vast array of applications, from [[artificial leather]] to [[electrical insulation]] and cabling, [[packaging]], and [[Food storage|containers]]. Its fabrication and processing are simple and well-established. The versatility of PVC is due to the wide range of [[plasticiser]]s and other additives that it accepts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bernard |first1=L. |last2=Cueff |first2=R. |last3=Breysse |first3=C. |last4=Décaudin |first4=B. |last5=Sautou |first5=V. |date=2015-05-15 |title=Migrability of PVC plasticizers from medical devices into a simulant of infused solutions |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037851731500246X |journal=International Journal of Pharmaceutics |language=en |volume=485 |issue=1 |pages=341–347 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.03.030 |pmid=25796128 |issn=0378-5173}}</ref> The term "additives" in polymer science refers to the chemicals and compounds added to the polymer base to modify its material properties.

[[Polycarbonate]] would be normally considered an engineering plastic (other examples include [[PEEK]], ABS). Such plastics are valued for their superior strengths and other special material properties. They are usually not used for disposable applications, unlike commodity plastics.

Specialty plastics are materials with unique characteristics, such as ultra-high strength, electrical conductivity, electro-fluorescence, high thermal stability, etc.

The dividing lines between the various types of plastics is not based on material but rather on their properties and applications. For example, [[polyethylene]] (PE) is a cheap, low friction polymer commonly used to make disposable bags for shopping and trash, and is considered a commodity plastic, whereas [[medium-density polyethylene]] (MDPE) is used for underground gas and water pipes, and another variety called [[ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene]] (UHMWPE) is an engineering plastic which is used extensively as the glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted [[hip joint]]s.

===Metal alloys===
{{Main|Alloy}}
[[File:Steel wire rope.png|thumb|upright|Wire rope made from [[steel]] alloy]]
The alloys of iron ([[steel]], [[stainless steel]], [[cast iron]], [[tool steel]], [[alloy steel]]s) make up the largest proportion of metals today both by quantity and commercial value.

Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives [[Carbon steel#Mild or low-carbon steel|low]], mid and [[high carbon steel]]s. An iron-carbon alloy is only considered steel if the carbon level is between 0.01% and 2.00% by weight. For steels, the [[hardness]] and tensile strength of the steel is related to the amount of carbon present, with increasing carbon levels also leading to lower ductility and toughness. [[Heat treatment]] processes such as [[quenching]] and [[tempering (metallurgy)|tempering]] can significantly change these properties, however. In contrast, [[Invar|certain metal alloys]] exhibit unique properties where their size and density remain unchanged across a range of temperatures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lohaus |first1=S. H. |last2=Heine |first2=M. |last3=Guzman |first3=P. |last4=Bernal-Choban |first4=C. M. |last5=Saunders |first5=C. N. |last6=Shen |first6=G. |last7=Hellman |first7=O. |last8=Broido |first8=D. |last9=Fultz |first9=B. |date=2023-07-27 |title=A thermodynamic explanation of the Invar effect |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41567-023-02142-z |journal=Nature Physics |volume=19 |issue=11 |language=en |pages=1642–1648 |doi=10.1038/s41567-023-02142-z |bibcode=2023NatPh..19.1642L |s2cid=260266502 |issn=1745-2481}}</ref> Cast iron is defined as an iron–carbon alloy with more than 2.00%, but less than 6.67% carbon. Stainless steel is defined as a regular steel alloy with greater than 10% by weight alloying content of [[chromium]]. [[Nickel]] and [[molybdenum]] are typically also added in stainless steels.

Other significant metallic alloys are those of [[Aluminium alloy|aluminium]], [[Titanium alloys|titanium]], [[copper]] and [[Magnesium alloy|magnesium]]. [[Copper alloys]] have been known for a long time (since the [[Bronze Age]]), while the alloys of the other three metals have been relatively recently developed. Due to the chemical reactivity of these metals, the electrolytic extraction processes required were only developed relatively recently. The alloys of aluminium, titanium and magnesium are also known and valued for their high strength to weight ratios and, in the case of magnesium, their ability to provide electromagnetic shielding.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Xianhua |last2=Liu |first2=Lizi |last3=Liu |first3=Juan |last4=Pan |first4=Fusheng |date=2015 |title=Microstructure, electromagnetic shielding effectiveness and mechanical properties of Mg–Zn–Y–Zr alloys |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.09.034 |journal=Materials & Design (1980-2015) |volume=65 |pages=360–369 |doi=10.1016/j.matdes.2014.09.034 |issn=0261-3069}}</ref> These materials are ideal for situations where high strength to weight ratios are more important than bulk cost, such as in the aerospace industry and certain automotive engineering applications.

===Semiconductors===
{{Main|Semiconductor}}
A [[semiconductor]] is a material that has a [[resistivity]] between a [[electrical conductor|conductor]] and [[Insulator (electricity)|insulator]]. Modern day electronics run on semiconductors, and the industry had an estimated US$530 billion market in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Semiconductor Market Size, Share & COVID-19 Impact Analysis, By Component (Memory Devices, Logic Devices, Analog IC, MPU, Discrete Power Devices, MCU, Sensors, and Others), By Application (Networking & Communications, Data Processing, Industrial, Consumer Electronics, Automotive, and Government), and Regional Forecast, 2022–2029 |url=https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/semiconductor-market-102365 |website=Fortune Business Insights |access-date=16 July 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611212323/https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/semiconductor-market-102365 |archive-date=11 June 2023 | date=16 July 2023}}</ref> Its electronic properties can be greatly altered through intentionally introducing impurities in a process referred to as doping. Semiconductor materials are used to build [[diode]]s, [[transistor]]s, [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs), and analog and digital [[electric circuit]]s, among their many uses. Semiconductor devices have replaced [[thermionic converter|thermionic]] devices like vacuum tubes in most applications. Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single discrete devices and as [[integrated circuit]]s (ICs), which consist of a number—from a few to millions—of devices manufactured and interconnected on a single semiconductor [[Substrate (materials science)|substrate]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aip.org/jobs/profiles/semiconductor-industry-careers |title=Semiconductor Industry Careers |access-date=2016-05-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604150127/https://www.aip.org/jobs/profiles/semiconductor-industry-careers |archive-date=2016-06-04 |date=2013-09-06 }}</ref>

Of all the semiconductors in use today, [[silicon]] makes up the largest portion both by quantity and commercial value. Monocrystalline silicon is used to produce wafers used in the semiconductor and [[electronics industry]]. [[Gallium arsenide]] (GaAs) is the second most popular semiconductor used. Due to its higher [[electron mobility]] and [[saturation velocity]] compared to silicon, it is a material of choice for high-speed electronics applications. These superior properties are compelling reasons to use GaAs circuitry in mobile phones, satellite communications, microwave point-to-point links and higher frequency radar systems. Other semiconductor materials include [[germanium]], [[silicon carbide]], and [[gallium nitride]] and have various applications.

==Relation with other fields==
[[File:Google Ngram Viewer diagram on complex matter terminology.png|thumb|311x311px|[[Google Ngram Viewer]]-diagram visualizing the search terms for complex matter terminology (1940–2018). Green: "materials science", red: "[[condensed matter physics]]" and blue: "[[Solid-state physics|solid state physics]]".]]
Materials science evolved, starting from the 1950s because it was recognized that to create, discover and design new materials, one had to approach it in a unified manner. Thus, materials science and engineering emerged in many ways: renaming and/or combining existing [[metallurgy]] and [[ceramics engineering]] departments; splitting from existing [[solid state physics]] research (itself growing into [[condensed matter physics]]); pulling in relatively new [[polymer engineering]] and [[polymer science]]; recombining from the previous, as well as [[chemistry]], [[chemical engineering]], [[mechanical engineering]], and [[electrical engineering]]; and more.

The field of materials science and engineering is important both from a scientific perspective, as well as for applications field. Materials are of the utmost importance for engineers (or other applied fields) because usage of the appropriate materials is crucial when designing systems. As a result, materials science is an increasingly important part of an engineer's education.

Materials physics is the use of [[physics]] to describe the physical properties of materials. It is a synthesis of [[physical sciences]] such as [[chemistry]], [[solid mechanics]], [[solid state physics]], and materials science. Materials physics is considered a subset of [[condensed matter physics]] and applies fundamental condensed matter concepts to complex multiphase media, including materials of technological interest. Current fields that materials physicists work in include electronic, optical, and magnetic materials, novel materials and structures, quantum phenomena in materials, nonequilibrium physics, and soft condensed matter physics. New experimental and computational tools are constantly improving how materials systems are modeled and studied and are also fields when materials physicists work in.

The field is inherently [[interdisciplinary]], and the materials scientists or engineers must be aware and make use of the methods of the physicist, chemist and engineer. Conversely, fields such as life sciences and archaeology can inspire the development of new materials and processes, in [[Bioinspiration|bioinspired]] and [[Paleo-inspiration|paleoinspired]] approaches. Thus, there remain close relationships with these fields. Conversely, many physicists, chemists and engineers find themselves working in materials science due to the significant overlaps between the fields.

==Emerging technologies==
<!--
To add a new row to the table, insert

|-
| Emerging technology
| Status
| Potentially marginalized technologies
| Potential applications

and replace the placeholder with appropriate text.
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{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Emerging technology
! Status
! Potentially marginalized technologies
! Potential applications
! Related articles
|-
| [[Aerogel]]
| Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, 
early uses <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.constructiondigital.com/innovations/sto-ag-cabot-create-aerogel-insulation|title=Sto AG, Cabot Create Aerogel Insulation|access-date=18 November 2011|publisher=Construction Digital|date=15 November 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111231012849/http://www.constructiondigital.com/innovations/sto-ag-cabot-create-aerogel-insulation|archive-date=31 December 2011}}</ref>
| Traditional insulation, glass
| Improved insulation, insulative glass if it can be made clear, sleeves for oil pipelines, aerospace, high-heat & extreme cold applications
|
|-
| [[Amorphous metal]]
| Experiments
| [[Kevlar]]
| Armor
|
|-
| [[Conductive polymer]]s
| Research, experiments, prototypes
| Conductors
| Lighter and cheaper wires, antistatic materials, [[organic solar cell]]s
|
|-
| [[Femtotechnology]], [[picotechnology]]
| Hypothetical
| Present nuclear
| New materials; nuclear weapons, power
|
|-
| [[Fullerene]]
| Experiments, diffusion
| Synthetic diamond and carbon nanotubes (Buckypaper)
| [[Programmable matter]]
|
|-
| [[Graphene]]
| Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, 
early uses <ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/click_online/9491789.stm|title=Is graphene a miracle material?|access-date=18 November 2011|publisher=BBC Click|date=21 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/nov/13/graphene-research-novoselov-geim-manchester|title=Could graphene be the new silicon?|access-date=18 November 2011|newspaper=The Guardian|date=13 November 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902031129/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/nov/13/graphene-research-novoselov-geim-manchester|archive-date=2 September 2013}}</ref>
| Silicon-based [[integrated circuit]]
| Components with higher strength to weight ratios, transistors that operate at higher frequency, lower cost of display screens in mobile devices, storing hydrogen for fuel cell powered cars, filtration systems, longer-lasting and faster-charging batteries, sensors to diagnose diseases<ref>{{cite web|title=Applications of Graphene under Development|url=http://www.understandingnano.com/graphene-applications.html|publisher=understandingnano.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921024004/http://www.understandingnano.com/graphene-applications.html|archive-date=2014-09-21}}</ref>
|[[Potential applications of graphene]]
|-
| [[High-temperature superconductivity]]
| Cryogenic receiver front-end (CRFE) [[RF and microwave filter]] systems for mobile phone base stations; prototypes in [[dry ice]]; Hypothetical and experiments for higher temperatures <ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/6412057.stm|title=The 'new age' of super materials|access-date=27 April 2011|work=BBC News|date=5 March 2007}}</ref>
| Copper wire, semiconductor integral circuits
| No loss conductors, frictionless bearings, [[magnetic levitation]], lossless high-capacity [[Accumulator (energy)|accumulators]], [[electric car]]s, heat-free integral circuits and processors
|
|-
| [[LiTraCon]]
| Experiments, already used to make [[Europe Gate]]
| [[Glass]]
| Building skyscrapers, towers, and sculptures like Europe Gate
|
|-
| [[Metamaterial]]s
| Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion <ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/09/science/09meta.html?_r=1|title=Strides in Materials, but No Invisibility Cloak|access-date=21 April 2011|newspaper=The New York Times|date=8 November 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701040901/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/09/science/09meta.html?_r=1|archive-date=1 July 2017}}</ref>
| Classical [[optics]]
| [[Microscope]]s, [[camera]]s, [[metamaterial cloaking]], [[cloaking device]]s
|
|-
| [[Metal foam]]
| Research, commercialization
| Hulls
| [[Space colonization|Space colonies]], floating cities
|
|-
| [[Multi-function structure|Multi function structure]]s<ref>[http://www.nae.edu/?ID=8683 NAE Website: Frontiers of Engineering] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728151020/http://www.nae.edu/?ID=8683 |date=2014-07-28 }}. Nae.edu. Retrieved 22 February 2011.</ref>
| Hypothetical, experiments, some prototypes, few commercial
| [[Composite material]]s
| Wide range, e.g., self-health monitoring, [[self-healing material]], morphing
|
|-
| [[Nanomaterials]]: [[carbon nanotube]]s
| Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, 
early uses <ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8471362.stm|title=Carbon nanotubes used to make batteries from fabrics|access-date=27 April 2011|work=BBC News|date=21 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailytech.com/Researchers+One+Step+Closer+to+Building+Synthetic+Brain/article21459c.htm|title=Researchers One Step Closer to Building Synthetic Brain|access-date=27 April 2011|publisher=Daily Tech|date=25 April 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429015558/http://www.dailytech.com/Researchers+One+Step+Closer+to+Building+Synthetic+Brain/article21459c.htm|archive-date=29 April 2011}}</ref>
| Structural [[steel]] and [[aluminium]]
| Stronger, lighter materials, [[space elevator|the space elevator]]
| [[Potential applications of carbon nanotubes]], [[carbon fiber]]
|-
| [[Programmable matter]]
| Hypothetical, experiments<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/pentagon-developing-shape-shifting-transformers-for-battlefield|title=Pentagon Developing Shape-Shifting 'Transformers' for Battlefield|access-date=26 April 2011|publisher=Fox News|date=10 June 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205045019/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,525565,00.html|archive-date=5 February 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.zdnetasia.com/intel-programmable-matter-takes-shape-62045198.htm|title=Intel: Programmable matter takes shape|access-date=2 January 2012|publisher=ZD Net|date=22 August 2008}}</ref> 
| [[Coating]]s, [[catalyst]]s
| Wide range, e.g., [[claytronics]], [[synthetic biology]]
|
|-
| [[Quantum dot]]s
| Research, experiments, prototypes<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/8580372.stm|title='Quantum dots' to boost performance of mobile cameras|access-date=16 April 2011|work=BBC News|date=22 March 2010}}</ref>
| [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]], [[Light-emitting diode|LED]]
| [[Quantum dot laser]], future use as programmable matter in display technologies (TV, projection), optical data communications (high-speed data transmission), medicine (laser scalpel)
|
|-
| [[Silicene]]
| Hypothetical, research 
| Field-effect transistors
| 
|}

==Subdisciplines==

The main branches of materials science stem from the four main classes of materials: ceramics, metals, polymers and composites.
* [[Ceramic engineering]]
* [[Metallurgy]]
* [[Polymer science]] and [[polymer engineering|engineering]]
* [[Composite material|Composite engineering]]

There are additionally broadly applicable, materials independent, endeavors.
* [[Characterization (materials science)|Materials characterization]] ([[spectroscopy]], [[microscopy]], [[diffraction]])
* [[Computational materials science]]
* [[Materials informatics]] and [[Material selection|selection]]

There are also relatively broad focuses across materials on specific phenomena and techniques.
* [[Crystallography]]
* [[Surface science]]
* [[Tribology]]
* [[Microelectronics]]

== Related or interdisciplinary fields ==
* [[Condensed matter physics]], [[solid-state physics]] and [[solid-state chemistry]]
* [[Nanotechnology]]
* [[Mineralogy]]
* [[Supramolecular chemistry]]
* [[Biomaterial|Biomaterials science]]

==Professional societies==
* [[American Ceramic Society]]
* [[ASM International (society)|ASM International]]
* [[Association for Iron and Steel Technology]]
* [[Materials Research Society]]
* [[The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society]]

==See also==
{{Portal|Science|Engineering}}
{{colbegin|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Bio-based material]]
* [[Bioplastic]]
* [[Forensic materials engineering]]
* [[List of emerging technologies#Materials and textile science|List of emerging materials science technologies]]
* [[List of materials science journals]]
* [[List of materials analysis methods]]
* [[Materials science in science fiction]]
* [[Timeline of materials technology]]
{{colend}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

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==Further reading==
* [http://www.materialmoments.org/top100.html Timeline of Materials Science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727070640/http://www.materialmoments.org/top100.html |date=2011-07-27 }} at The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS){{snd}} accessed March 2007
* {{cite book
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 | date= 1990
 | title= Space Groups for Scientists and Engineers
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 | location= Boston
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 | isbn= 978-0-12-145761-7
 | url-access= registration
 | url= https://archive.org/details/spacegroupsforso0000burn
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last= Cullity
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 | date= 1978
 | title= Elements of X-Ray Diffraction
 | edition= 2nd
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 | location= Reading, Massachusetts
 | isbn= 978-0-534-55396-8
}}
* {{cite book | last= Giacovazzo | first= C | author2= Monaco HL| author3= Viterbo D| author4= Scordari F| author5= Gilli G| author6= Zanotti G| author7= Catti M | date= 1992 | title= Fundamentals of Crystallography | publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] | location= Oxford | isbn= 978-0-19-855578-0}}
* {{cite book
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 | author3= Swain, M.V.
 | date= 1989
 | title= Transformation Toughening of Ceramics
 | location= Boca Raton
 | publisher= CRC Press
 | isbn= 978-0-8493-6594-2
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* {{cite book
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 | first= S. W.
 | date= 1984
 | title= Theory of Neutron Scattering from Condensed Matter; Volume 1: Neutron Scattering
 | publisher= Clarendon Press
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* {{cite book
 | last= Lovesey
 | first= S. W.
 | date= 1984
 | title= Theory of Neutron Scattering from Condensed Matter; Volume 2: Condensed Matter
 | publisher= Clarendon Press
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* {{cite journal
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 | first= M.
 | author2= Hyde, B.G.
 | date= 1996
 | title= Crystal Structures; I. Patterns and Symmetry
 | journal= [[Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials]]
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* {{cite book
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* {{cite book
 | editor= Young, R.A.
 | date= 1993
 | title= The Rietveld Method
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}}

==External links==
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{{Commons category|Materials science}}
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* [http://www.matscitech.org/ MS&T conference organized by the main materials societies]
* [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/ MIT OpenCourseWare for MSE]

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