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{{Short description|Contagious disease primarily affecting goats and sheep}}
{{Virusbox
{{Virusbox
| image =
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| image_caption =
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| parent = Morbillivirus
| parent = Morbillivirus
| species = Small ruminant morbillivirus
| species = Morbillivirus caprinae
| authority =
| synonyms =
| synonyms =
*''Peste-des-petits-ruminants virus''
*''Peste-des-petits-ruminants virus''
*''Pest des petits ruminants virus''
*''Pest des petits ruminants virus''
| synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web |title=ICTV Taxonomy history: ''Small ruminant morbillivirus'' |url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20181619 |website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) |accessdate=15 January 2019 |language=en |format=html}}</ref>
| synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web |title=ICTV Taxonomy history: ''Small ruminant morbillivirus'' |url=https://ictv.global/taxonomy/taxondetails?taxnode_id=20181619 |website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) |access-date=15 January 2019 |language=en }}</ref>
| subdivision_ranks =
| subdivision_ranks =
| subdivision =
| subdivision =
}}
}}


'''Ovine rinderpest''', also commonly known as '''''peste des petits ruminants''''' ('''PPR'''), is a contagious disease primarily affecting [[goat]]s and [[sheep]]; however, camels and wild small [[ruminant]]s can also be affected.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Munir|first=M.|date=2014-10-01|title=Role of Wild Small Ruminants in the Epidemiology of&nbsp;Peste Des Petits Ruminants|journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases|language=en|volume=61|issue=5|pages=411–424|doi=10.1111/tbed.12052|pmid=23305511|issn=1865-1682}}</ref> PPR is currently present in [[North Africa|North]], [[Central Africa|Central]], [[West Africa|West]] and [[East Africa]], the [[Middle East]], and [[South Asia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Banyard|first=Ashley C.|last2=Parida|first2=Satya|last3=Batten|first3=Carrie|last4=Oura|first4=Chris|last5=Kwiatek|first5=Olivier|last6=Libeau|first6=Genevieve|date=2010|title=Global distribution of peste des petits ruminants virus and prospects for improved diagnosis and control|journal=Journal of General Virology|volume=91|issue=12|pages=2885–2897|doi=10.1099/vir.0.025841-0|pmid=20844089}}</ref> It is caused by ''small ruminants morbillivirus'' in the genus ''[[Morbillivirus]],'' and is closely related to, among others,'' [[Rinderpest|rinderpest morbillivirus]], [[Measles|measles morbillivirus]]'', and [[Canine distemper|''canine morbillivirus'']] (previously known as [[Caninae|canine]] distemper virus). The disease is highly contagious, and can have an 80–100% mortality rate in [[Acute (medicine)|acute]] cases in an [[epidemic]] setting. This virus does not infect humans.
'''Ovine rinderpest''', also commonly known as '''''peste des petits ruminants''''' ('''PPR'''), is a contagious disease primarily affecting [[goat]]s and [[sheep]]; however, camels and wild small [[ruminant]]s can also be affected.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Munir|first=M.|date=2014-10-01|title=Role of Wild Small Ruminants in the Epidemiology of&nbsp;Peste Des Petits Ruminants|journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases|language=en|volume=61|issue=5|pages=411–424|doi=10.1111/tbed.12052|pmid=23305511|issn=1865-1682|doi-access=free}}</ref> PPR is currently present in [[North Africa|North]], [[Central Africa|Central]], [[West Africa|West]] and [[East Africa]], the [[Middle East]], [[South Asia]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Banyard|first1=Ashley C.|last2=Parida|first2=Satya|last3=Batten|first3=Carrie|last4=Oura|first4=Chris|last5=Kwiatek|first5=Olivier|last6=Libeau|first6=Genevieve|date=2010|title=Global distribution of peste des petits ruminants virus and prospects for improved diagnosis and control|journal=Journal of General Virology|volume=91|issue=12|pages=2885–2897|doi=10.1099/vir.0.025841-0|pmid=20844089|doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[Southern Europe]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Greece - Peste des petits ruminants virus (Inf. with) - Follow up report 6 |url=https://wahis.woah.org/#/in-review/5759 |access-date=26 July 2024}}</ref> It is caused by ''Morbillivirus caprinae'' in the genus ''[[Morbillivirus]],'' and is closely related to, among others, [[Rinderpest|''Morbillivirus pecoris'']] (rinderpest), [[Measles|''Morbillivirus hominis'']] (Measles virus), and [[Canine distemper|''Morbillivirus canis'']] (also known as [[Caninae|canine]] distemper virus). The disease is highly contagious, and can have an 80–100% mortality rate in [[Acute (medicine)|acute]] cases in an [[epizootic]] setting. The virus does not infect humans.


This disease was first described in 1942 in [[Côte d'Ivoire]]. Now, PPR has spread to more than 70 countries in the world.<ref>[[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations]]- published an article about PPR in their website{{cite journal|url=http://www.fao.org/ppr/en/|title=Peste des Petits Ruminants|publisher=[[fao.org]]}}</ref>
The disease was first described in 1942 in [[Côte d'Ivoire]], and has since been detected in more than 70 countries in the world.<ref>{{cite web |website=[[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations]] |url=http://www.fao.org/ppr/en/|title=Peste des Petits Ruminants}}</ref>


In 2017, the disease was reported to be affecting [[saiga antelope|saiga]] in [[Mongolia]], causing near-catastrophic herd depletion for the [[endangered species]].<ref name="promedmail-4889954">{{cite web|url=https://www.promedmail.org/post/4889954|publisher=[[ProMED-mail]]|date=9 March 2017|accessdate=9 March 2017|title=PESTE DES PETITS RUMINANTS – MONGOLIA (03): (HOVD) SAIGA ANTELOPE}}</ref>
In 2017, the disease was reported to be affecting [[saiga antelope]] in [[Mongolia]], causing near-catastrophic herd depletion for the [[endangered species]].<ref name="promedmail-4889954">{{cite web|url=https://www.promedmail.org/post/4889954|publisher=[[ProMED-mail]]|date=9 March 2017|access-date=9 March 2017|title=PESTE DES PETITS RUMINANTS – MONGOLIA (03): (HOVD) SAIGA ANTELOPE}}</ref>


In 2018, the disease was reported to be in Bulgaria close to the border with Turkey.<ref name="reuters-idUSKBN1K923D">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bulgaria-ppr/bulgaria-reports-another-case-of-ovine-rinderpest-idUSKBN1K923D|publisher=|date=19 July 2018|accessdate=2 August 2018|title=Bulgaria reports another case of ovine rinderpest|newspaper=Reuters}}</ref>
In 2018, it was stated that the disease was reported to be present in Bulgaria close to the border with Turkey.<ref name="reuters-idUSKBN1K923D">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bulgaria-ppr/bulgaria-reports-another-case-of-ovine-rinderpest-idUSKBN1K923D|date=19 July 2018|access-date=2 August 2018|title=Bulgaria reports another case of ovine rinderpest|newspaper=Reuters}}</ref> In a flock of 540 sheep and goats, two animals tested positive and one died, with disease confirmed by only one laboratory without any further tests.<ref>[https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5b30e011ed915d5876adedb8/poa-pdp-ruminants-bulgaria.pdf Prevalence of Antimicrobial Resistance in Ruminants in Bulgaria: A Pilot Study]</ref>
Nevertheless, over 4000 sheep and goats were killed.<ref>[https://sofiaglobe.com/2018/07/15/protests-amid-outrage-over-killing-of-sheep-and-goats-over-rinderpest-outbreak-in-bulgaria/ Protests amid outrage over killing of sheep and goats over rinderpest outbreak in Bulgaria]</ref>


== Synonyms ==
== Synonyms ==
PPR is also known as goat plague, ''kata'', syndrome of stomatitis-pneumoenteritis, and ovine rinderpest.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parida|first=S.|last2=Muniraju|first2=M.|last3=Mahapatra|first3=M.|last4=Muthuchelvan|first4=D.|last5=Buczkowski|first5=H.|last6=Banyard|first6=A.C.|title=Peste des petits ruminants|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|volume=181|issue=1–2|pages=90–106|doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.08.009|pmid=26443889|pmc=4655833|year=2015}}</ref>
PPR is also known as goat plague, ''kata'', syndrome of stomatitis-pneumoenteritis, and ovine rinderpest.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parida|first1=S.|last2=Muniraju|first2=M.|last3=Mahapatra|first3=M.|last4=Muthuchelvan|first4=D.|last5=Buczkowski|first5=H.|last6=Banyard|first6=A.C.|title=Peste des petits ruminants|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|volume=181|issue=1–2|pages=90–106|doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.08.009|pmid=26443889|pmc=4655833|year=2015}}</ref>


Official agencies such as the [[FAO]] and [[OIE]] use the French name "''peste des petits ruminants''" with several spelling variants.
Official agencies such as the [[FAO]] and [[OIE]] use the French name "''peste des petits ruminants''" with several spelling variants.


== Signs and symptoms ==
== Signs and symptoms ==
Symptoms are similar to those of [[rinderpest]] in [[cattle]] and involves oral [[necrosis]], [[Pus|mucopurulent]] nasal and [[Eye|ocular]] discharges, cough, [[pneumonia]], and diarrhea,<ref name=Taylor2015/> though they vary according to the previous [[Immunocompetence|immune status]] of the sheep (enzootic or newly infected country{{Clarify|date=April 2018}}). They also vary according to the breed of sheep. However, fever in addition to either diarrhea or signs of oral discomfort is sufficient to suspect the diagnosis.<ref name=Taylor2015/> Incubation period is 2–6 days.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}
Symptoms are similar to those of [[rinderpest]] in [[cattle]] and involves oral [[necrosis]], [[Pus|mucopurulent]] nasal and [[Eye|ocular]] discharges, cough, [[pneumonia]], and diarrhea,<ref name=Taylor2015/> though they vary according to the previous [[Immunocompetence|immune status]] of the sheep, the geographic location, the time of year, or if the infection is new or chronic. They also vary according to the breed of sheep. However, fever in addition to either diarrhea or signs of oral discomfort is sufficient to suspect the diagnosis.<ref name=Taylor2015/> Incubation period is 3–5 days.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/rinderpest|title=Rinderpest {{!}} animal disease|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-12-07}}</ref>


=== Hyperacute cases ===
=== Hyperacute cases ===
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=== Evolution of acute cases ===
=== Evolution of acute cases ===
Nasal discharge becomes [[mucopurulent]] and may obstruct the nose. A dry, fitful [[coughing]] develops. Death occurs from 5 to 10 days after the onset of the fever. Some animals may recover, but a dry, [[stertorous]] coughing often persists for some days.<ref>J. Berrada, ''Observations des premiers cas confirmés de peste des petits ruminants au Maroc'', oral presentation, El Jadida, 31-07-2008.</ref> Besides coughing, there is intensive [[Lip|labial]] [[dermatitis]] with scab formation, resembling [[Orf (disease)|orf]].<ref>Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, ''op cit.''</ref> Miscarriages may occur.<ref name="WikiVet">[http://en.wikivet.net/Peste_des_Petits_Ruminants Peste des Petits Ruminants] reviewed and published by [[WikiVet]], accessed 10 October 2011.</ref>
Nasal discharge becomes [[mucopurulent]] and may obstruct the nose. A dry, fitful [[coughing]] develops. Death occurs from 5 to 10 days after the onset of the fever. Some animals may recover, but a dry, [[stertorous]] coughing often persists for some days.<ref>J. Berrada, ''Observations des premiers cas confirmés de peste des petits ruminants au Maroc'', oral presentation, El Jadida, 31-07-2008.</ref> Besides coughing, there is intensive [[Lip|labial]] [[dermatitis]] with scab formation, resembling [[Orf (disease)|orf]].<ref>Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, ''op cit.''</ref> Miscarriages may occur.<ref name="WikiVet">[http://en.wikivet.net/Peste_des_Petits_Ruminants Peste des Petits Ruminants] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130222093410/http://en.wikivet.net/Peste_des_Petits_Ruminants |date=2013-02-22 }} reviewed and published by [[WikiVet]], accessed 10 October 2011.</ref>


<gallery>
<gallery>
Image:Oviete pesse otoschoûtaedje.jpg|Self-[[auscultation]] in an acute case
File:Oviete pesse otoschoûtaedje.jpg|Self-[[auscultation]] in an acute case
Image:Pesse bedots mannixhaedje dirî.jpg|Hind legs stained with sticky diarrhoea
File:Pesse bedots mannixhaedje dirî.jpg|Hind legs stained with sticky diarrhoea
Image:Pesse bedots tchamlou dos1.jpg|Arched back (painful defecation)
File:Pesse bedots tchamlou dos1.jpg|Arched back (painful defecation)
Image:Oviete pesse efouwaedje divins lepes.jpg|inflammation and erosion of the mouth
File:Oviete pesse efouwaedje divins lepes.jpg|inflammation and erosion of the mouth
Image:Pesse berbis efouwaedje djincive dints.jpg|Periodontitis
File:Pesse berbis efouwaedje djincive dints.jpg|Periodontitis
Image:Pesse bedots souwêye nåze.jpg|Mucopurulent nasal exudate
File:Pesse bedots souwêye nåze.jpg|Mucopurulent nasal exudate
Image:Pesse bedots riwerixhaedje crapes.jpg|[[Orf (disease)|Orf]]-like scabs on lips in a recovering case, Day 8
File:Pesse bedots riwerixhaedje crapes.jpg|[[Orf (disease)|Orf]]-like scabs on lips in a recovering case, Day 8
</gallery>
</gallery>


==Cause==
==Cause==
Peste des petits ruminants is caused by a ''[[Morbillivirus]]'' – ''Small ruminant morbillivirus'' – which is related to but distinct from [[Rinderpest virus]]. Four [[genotype]]s (lineages) of the virus are described.<ref name=Taylor2015/> Their classification is based on the nucleoprotein (N) or previously the fusion (F) protein gene. Lineages I and II are found mainly in West Africa. Lineage III is generally found in East Africa. Lineage IV was long known as the Asian lineage, but has now spread to the African continent and become the most prevalent lineage of all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kwiatek|first=Olivier|last2=Ali|first2=Yahia Hassan|last3=Saeed|first3=Intisar Kamil|last4=Khalafalla|first4=Abdelmelik Ibrahim|last5=Mohamed|first5=Osama Ishag|last6=Abu Obeida|first6=Ali|last7=Abdelrahman|first7=Magdi Badawi|last8=Osman|first8=Halima Mohamed|last9=Taha|first9=Khalid Mohamed|year=2011|title=Asian Lineage of Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus, Africa|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=17|issue=7|pages=1223–1231|doi=10.3201/eid1707.101216|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3381390|pmid=21762576}}</ref>
Peste des petits ruminants is caused by a ''[[Morbillivirus]]'' – ''Morbillivirus caprinae'' – which is related to but distinct from the now extirpated [[Rinderpest virus]]. Four [[genotype]]s (lineages) of the virus are described.<ref name=Taylor2015/> Their classification is based on the nucleoprotein (N) or previously the fusion (F) protein gene. Lineages I and II are found mainly in West Africa. Lineage III is generally found in East Africa. Lineage IV was long known as the Asian lineage, but has now spread to the African continent and become the most prevalent lineage of all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kwiatek|first1=Olivier|last2=Ali|first2=Yahia Hassan|last3=Saeed|first3=Intisar Kamil|last4=Khalafalla|first4=Abdelmelik Ibrahim|last5=Mohamed|first5=Osama Ishag|last6=Abu Obeida|first6=Ali|last7=Abdelrahman|first7=Magdi Badawi|last8=Osman|first8=Halima Mohamed|last9=Taha|first9=Khalid Mohamed|year=2011|title=Asian Lineage of Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus, Africa|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=17|issue=7|pages=1223–1231|doi=10.3201/eid1707.101216|issn=1080-6040|pmc=3381390|pmid=21762576}}</ref>


==Epidemiology==
==Epidemiology==
===Origin and spread===
===Origin and spread===
This virus appears to have evolved at the start of the 20th century in [[Nigeria]].<ref name=Muniraju2014>{{cite journal | last1 = Muniraju | first1 = M | last2 = Munir | first2 = M | last3 = Parthiban | first3 = AR | last4 = Banyard | first4 = AC | last5 = Bao | first5 = J | last6 = Wang | first6 = Z | last7 = Ayebazibwe | first7 = C | last8 = Ayelet | first8 = G | last9 = El Harrak | first9 = M | last10 = Mahapatra | first10 = M | last11 = Libeau | first11 = G | last12 = Batten | first12 = C | last13 = Parida | first13 = S | year = 2014 | title = Molecular evolution of peste des petits ruminants virus | url = | journal = Emerg Infect Dis | volume = 20 | issue = 12| pages = 2023–2033 | doi = 10.3201/eid2012.140684 | pmid = 25418782 | pmc = 4257836 }}</ref> The extant genotypes subsequently appeared in West Africa (lineages I and II), East Africa and Arabia (lineage III), and Pakistan–India (lineage IV).<ref name=Taylor2015/>
This virus appears to have evolved at the start of the 20th century in [[Nigeria]].<ref name=Muniraju2014>{{cite journal | last1 = Muniraju | first1 = M | last2 = Munir | first2 = M | last3 = Parthiban | first3 = AR | last4 = Banyard | first4 = AC | last5 = Bao | first5 = J | last6 = Wang | first6 = Z | last7 = Ayebazibwe | first7 = C | last8 = Ayelet | first8 = G | last9 = El Harrak | first9 = M | last10 = Mahapatra | first10 = M | last11 = Libeau | first11 = G | last12 = Batten | first12 = C | last13 = Parida | first13 = S | year = 2014 | title = Molecular evolution of peste des petits ruminants virus | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases| volume = 20 | issue = 12| pages = 2023–2033 | doi = 10.3201/eid2012.140684 | pmid = 25418782 | pmc = 4257836 }}</ref> The extant genotypes subsequently appeared in West Africa (lineages I and II), East Africa and Arabia (lineage III), and Pakistan–India (lineage IV).<ref name=Taylor2015/>


The first description of the disease was published in 1942 and relates to an outbreak in [[Côte d’Ivoire]], West Africa, in goats and sheep in 1940.<ref>Dhar P, Sreenivasa BP, Barrett T, Corteyn M, Singh RP, Bandyopadhyay SK (2002) Recent epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV). Vet Microbiol 88(2):153–159</ref><ref name=Taylor2015>{{cite journal|last=Taylor|first=William|title=The global eradication of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) within 15 years—is this a pipe dream?|year=2015|journal=Trop Anim Health Prod|doi=10.1007/s11250-016-0993-x|pmid=26851956|volume=48|issue=3|pages=559–667}}</ref> It spread to East Africa and Arabia at the beginning of the 1980s and to Pakistan and India in the early 1990s (Calcutta goat markets) finally reaching [[Tibet]] in 2007.<ref name=Taylor2015/> The first description of this virus in India was in 1987.
The first description of the disease was published in 1942 and relates to an outbreak in [[Côte d’Ivoire]], West Africa, in goats and sheep in 1940.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/s0378-1135(02)00102-5 | title=Recent epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) | year=2002 | last1=Dhar | first1=Pronab | last2=Sreenivasa | first2=B.P | last3=Barrett | first3=Thomas | last4=Corteyn | first4=Mandy | last5=Singh | first5=R.P | last6=Bandyopadhyay | first6=S.K | journal=Veterinary Microbiology | volume=88 | issue=2 | pages=153–159 | pmid=12135634 }}</ref><ref name=Taylor2015>{{cite journal|last=Taylor|first=William|title=The global eradication of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) within 15 years—is this a pipe dream?|year=2015|journal= Tropical Animal Health and Production|doi=10.1007/s11250-016-0993-x|pmid=26851956|volume=48|issue=3|pages=559–667|s2cid=255107410 }}</ref> It spread to East Africa and Arabia at the beginning of the 1980s and to Pakistan and India in the early 1990s (Calcutta goat markets) finally reaching [[Tibet]] in 2007.<ref name=Taylor2015/> The first description of this virus in India was in 1987.


The outbreak in Burkina Faso in 1999 was caused by the lineage I group. Genotype III has caused outbreaks in Ethiopia (1996) and also in Arabia, southern India, and Tamil Nadu (1992). This lineage was found in Yemen in 2001. Genotype IV has been isolated in Kuwait in 1999.
The outbreak in Burkina Faso in 1999 was caused by the lineage I group. Genotype III has caused outbreaks in Ethiopia (1996) and also in Arabia, southern India, and Tamil Nadu (1992). This lineage was found in Yemen in 2001. Genotype IV has been isolated in Kuwait in 1999.
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As of 2017, the disease is present in West Africa, part of Central Africa ([[Gabon]], [[Central African Republic]]), East Africa (north of the Equator), the Middle East and the [[Indian subcontinent]] including [[Nepal]] and [[Myanmar]]. The disease is [[Endemism|endemic]] in the Indian subcontinent and is a major threat to fast-growing goat husbandry in India, causing an annual loss of around 1800 million Indian [[rupee]]s.
As of 2017, the disease is present in West Africa, part of Central Africa ([[Gabon]], [[Central African Republic]]), East Africa (north of the Equator), the Middle East and the [[Indian subcontinent]] including [[Nepal]] and [[Myanmar]]. The disease is [[Endemism|endemic]] in the Indian subcontinent and is a major threat to fast-growing goat husbandry in India, causing an annual loss of around 1800 million Indian [[rupee]]s.


In [[North Africa]], only [[Egypt]] was once hit, but since summer 2008, [[Morocco]] is suffering a generalized outbreak with 133 known cases in 129 [[province]]s, mostly affecting sheep.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2008/1000918/index.html|title=Outbreak of 'peste des petits ruminants' in Morocco|date=September 9, 2008|work=FAO Newsroom|publisher=[[FAO]]|accessdate=2008-09-10}}</ref> The outbreak has precipitated the [[vaccination]] of a large number of the 17 million sheep and five million goats in the country.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5h33quK7215cAA4r-uxdSl6a7RgpQ|title=Morocco to vaccinate all livestock after virus outbreak|date=September 9, 2008|work=[[Agence France-Presse|AFP]]|accessdate=2008-09-10}}</ref>
In [[North Africa]], only [[Egypt]] was once hit, but since summer 2008, [[Morocco]] is suffering a generalized outbreak with 133 known cases in 129 [[province]]s, mostly affecting sheep.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2008/1000918/index.html|title=Outbreak of 'peste des petits ruminants' in Morocco|date=September 9, 2008|work=FAO Newsroom|publisher=[[FAO]]|access-date=2008-09-10}}</ref> The outbreak has precipitated the [[vaccination]] of a large number of the 17 million sheep and five million goats in the country.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5h33quK7215cAA4r-uxdSl6a7RgpQ|title=Morocco to vaccinate all livestock after virus outbreak|date=September 9, 2008|work=[[Agence France-Presse|AFP]]|access-date=2008-09-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520165800/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5h33quK7215cAA4r-uxdSl6a7RgpQ|archive-date=May 20, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>


=== Dissemination ===
=== Dissemination ===
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Erosions and inflammation are widespread on buccal mucosa. The same lesions are also present in [[pharynx]], oesophagus, and on mucus-producing [[epithelia]] of the [[Gut (zoology)|gut]], from [[abomasum]] to [[rectum]]. Zebra-striped lesions on [[coecum]] and [[Colon (anatomy)|colon]] are said to be typical in some cases. Rarely, also petechiae are on the [[rumen]] mucosa.<ref>Tligui, ''Observations nécropsiques sur les premiers cas confirmés de peste des petits ruminants au Maroc'', oral presentation, El Jadida, 31-07-2008.</ref>
Erosions and inflammation are widespread on buccal mucosa. The same lesions are also present in [[pharynx]], oesophagus, and on mucus-producing [[epithelia]] of the [[Gut (zoology)|gut]], from [[abomasum]] to [[rectum]]. Zebra-striped lesions on [[coecum]] and [[Colon (anatomy)|colon]] are said to be typical in some cases. Rarely, also petechiae are on the [[rumen]] mucosa.<ref>Tligui, ''Observations nécropsiques sur les premiers cas confirmés de peste des petits ruminants au Maroc'', oral presentation, El Jadida, 31-07-2008.</ref>


=== Microscopic lesions ===
⚫
==Diagnosis==
Microscopic study of both natural and experimental cases revealed [[Congestion of the Lungs|congestion]] and [[edema]] of the lungs, while in other cases it revealed a network of fibrin infiltrated with neutrophils, the formation of [[Syncytium|syncytia]] and [[Giant cell|giant cells]], and the presence of a pink-colored bacterial colony.{{cn |date=February 2023}}  There was infiltration of [[Neutrophil|neutrophils]] and [[Monocyte|mononuclear]] cells within the [[Alveolus|alveoli]], [[Bronchiole|bronchioles]], alveolar wall, and [[interstitium]] of the lung.{{cn |date=February 2023}}  Microscopic analysis also revealed that there was [[Interstitial lung disease|interstitial pneumonia]] followed by [[sloughing]] of the [[Bronchus|bronchial]] epithelium in the lungs and the prominence of type II pneumocytes.{{cn |date=February 2023}} Numerous inflammatory cells were found in the [[submucosa]] and [[lamina propria]] of intestinal samples, and [[Vacuole|vacuolar]] degeneration and [[Syncytium|syncytial]] cells, which are microscopic features, were observed in [[Hepatocyte|hepatocytes]] of liver samples from goats. [[Lobules of liver|Periportal]] [[multifocal]] [[Lymphocyte|lymphocytic]] infiltrations were common in the liver [[parenchyma]].{{cn |date=February 2023}}
⚫
History and clinical signs enable a presumptive diagnosis to be made in endemic regions. The virus can be detected in acute cases from various swabs and blood samples, using [[PCR]] and [[ELISA]]. [[Antibody|Antibodies]] can also be detected by ELISA.<ref name="WikiVet"/>

[[Leptomeningitis]] and nonsuppurative [[encephalitis]] were visible in brain sections under a microscope, and these conditions were characterized by [[Blood vessel|vascular]] [[Congestion of the Lungs|congestion]], [[Bleeding|hemorrhages]] in the [[parenchyma]], [[Perivascular space|perivascular]] cuffing with mild to moderate [[mononuclear]] cells (mostly [[Lymphocyte|lymphocytes]] and few [[Macrophage|macrophages]]), focal to diffuse microgliosis, [[Neuron|neuronal]] degeneration, satellitosis, and neuronophagia.<ref>
{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/1348-0421.13030 |title=Novel and classical morbilliviruses: Current knowledge of three divergent morbillivirus groups |year=2022 |last1=Seki |first1=Fumio |last2=Takeda |first2=Makoto |journal=Microbiology and Immunology |volume=66 |issue=12 |pages=552–563 |pmid=36151905 |s2cid=252497033 }}

This review cites this research.

{{Cite journal |last1=Sahoo |first1=Monalisa |last2=M |first2=Dinesh |last3=Thakor |first3=Jigarji Chaturji |last4=Baloni |first4=Suraj |last5=Saxena |first5=Sonal |last6=Shrivastava |first6=Sameer |last7=Dhama |first7=Kuldeep |last8=Singh |first8=Karampal |last9=Singh |first9=Rajendra |date=2020-03-01 |title=Neuropathology mediated through caspase dependent extrinsic pathway in goat kids naturally infected with PPRV |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0882401019305959 |journal=[[Microbial Pathogenesis]] |language=en |volume=140 |pages=103949 |doi=10.1016/j.micpath.2019.103949 |pmid=31875517 |s2cid=209482267 |issn=0882-4010}}
</ref>

In summary Epithelial cells, alveolar macrophages, lungs, and hepatocytes all showed histopathological alterations, primarily infiltrations of inflammatory cells, syncytia, and presence of intranuclear and/or [[Intracytoplasmic morphologically selected sperm injection|intracytoplasmic]] [[Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis|eosinophillic]] inclusions.<ref>
{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00705-018-3843-5 |title=Taxonomy of the family Arenaviridae and the order Bunyavirales: Update 2018 |year=2018 |last1=Maes |first1=Piet |last2=Alkhovsky |first2=Sergey V. |last3=Bào |first3=Yīmíng |last4=Beer |first4=Martin |last5=Birkhead |first5=Monica |last6=Briese |first6=Thomas |last7=Buchmeier |first7=Michael J. |last8=Calisher |first8=Charles H. |last9=Charrel |first9=Rémi N. |last10=Choi |first10=Il Ryong |last11=Clegg |first11=Christopher S. |last12=de la Torre |first12=Juan Carlos |last13=Delwart |first13=Eric |last14=Derisi |first14=Joseph L. |last15=Di Bello |first15=Patrick L. |last16=Di Serio |first16=Francesco |last17=Digiaro |first17=Michele |last18=Dolja |first18=Valerian V. |last19=Drosten |first19=Christian |last20=Druciarek |first20=Tobiasz Z. |last21=Du |first21=Jiang |last22=Ebihara |first22=Hideki |last23=Elbeaino |first23=Toufic |last24=Gergerich |first24=Rose C. |last25=Gillis |first25=Amethyst N. |last26=Gonzalez |first26=Jean-Paul J. |last27=Haenni |first27=Anne-Lise |last28=Hepojoki |first28=Jussi |last29=Hetzel |first29=Udo |last30=Hồ |first30=Thiện |journal=Archives of Virology |volume=163 |issue=8 |pages=2295–2310 |pmid=29680923 |s2cid=254054051 |display-authors=1 |doi-access=free |hdl=2263/64947 |hdl-access=free }}

This review cites this research.

{{Cite journal |title= Evidence of human infection by a new mammarenavirus endemic to Southeastern Asia|year=2016 |doi=10.7554/elife.13135 |last1=Blasdell |first1=Kim R. |last2=Duong |first2=Veasna |last3=Eloit |first3=Marc |last4=Chretien |first4=Fabrice |last5=Ly |first5=Sowath |last6=Hul |first6=Vibol |last7=Deubel |first7=Vincent |last8=Morand |first8=Serge |last9=Buchy |first9=Philippe |journal=eLife |volume=5 |pmid=27278118 |pmc=4900801 |doi-access=free }}
</ref>

⚫
== Diagnosis ==
⚫
History and clinical signs enable a presumptive diagnosis to be made in endemic regions. The virus can be detected in acute cases from various swabs and blood samples, using [[Polymerase chain reaction|PCR]] and [[ELISA]]. [[Antibody|Antibodies]] can also be detected by ELISA.<ref name="WikiVet"/>


==Treatment and control==
==Treatment and control==
Antibiotics such as [[chloramphenicol]], [[penicillin]], and [[streptomycin]] can be used and supportive treatment may be helpful.<ref name="WikiVet"/> Additionally, a [[vaccine]] has been developed that may decrease death in the flock.<ref name="WikiVet"/> Movement restrictions and slaughter of affected flocks may be required in an attempt to eradicate the disease.<ref name="WikiVet"/> A global eradication programme has been developed by the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the [[United Nations]] and the [[World Organisation for Animal Health]].<ref>FAO and WHO. 2016. [http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Media_Center/docs/pdf/PortailPPR/EN_GEP_PPR_Finalweb.pdf ''Peste des petits ruminants GLOBAL ERADICATION PROGRAM''.] Rome.</ref> More information can be found on FAO's website on the implementation of this global plan.<ref>FAO. Peste des Petits Ruminants. http://www.fao.org/ppr/en/ accessed Nov. 2016</ref> It is considered feasible to eradicate ovine rinderpest in 15 years.<ref name=Taylor2015/>
Antibiotics such as [[chloramphenicol]], [[penicillin]], and [[streptomycin]] can be used and supportive treatment may be helpful.<ref name="WikiVet"/> Additionally, a [[vaccine]] has been developed that may decrease death in the flock.<ref name="WikiVet"/> Movement restrictions and slaughter of affected flocks may be required in an attempt to eradicate the disease.<ref name="WikiVet"/> A global eradication programme has been developed by the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the [[United Nations]] and the [[World Organisation for Animal Health]].<ref>FAO and WHO. 2016. [http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Media_Center/docs/pdf/PortailPPR/EN_GEP_PPR_Finalweb.pdf ''Peste des petits ruminants GLOBAL ERADICATION PROGRAM''.] Rome.</ref> More information can be found on FAO's website on the implementation of this global plan.<ref>FAO. Peste des Petits Ruminants. http://www.fao.org/ppr/en/ accessed Nov. 2016</ref> It is considered feasible to eradicate ovine rinderpest in 15 years, starting in the year 2016.<ref name=Taylor2015/>


== References ==
== References ==
Line 86: Line 106:
==External links==
==External links==
{{portal bar|Viruses}}
{{portal bar|Viruses}}
{{Commons category|Peste des petits ruminants}}
{{Commons category|Ovine rinderpest}}


* [http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6316e.pdf PPR Global Eradication Program by FAO]
* [http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6316e.pdf PPR Global Eradication Program by FAO]
Line 93: Line 113:
*[http://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Diseaseinformation/Diseasehome Current status of Ovine rinderpest (Peste des petits ruminant PPR) worldwide] at OIE. WAHID Interface – OIE World Animal Health Information Database
*[http://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Diseaseinformation/Diseasehome Current status of Ovine rinderpest (Peste des petits ruminant PPR) worldwide] at OIE. WAHID Interface – OIE World Animal Health Information Database
*[http://www.oie.int/en/animal-health-in-the-world/technical-disease-cards/ Disease card]
*[http://www.oie.int/en/animal-health-in-the-world/technical-disease-cards/ Disease card]
* [http://en.wikivet.net/Peste_des_Petits_Ruminants WikiVet summary of disease and links to key references on CABI]
* [https://archive.today/20130222093410/http://en.wikivet.net/Peste_des_Petits_Ruminants WikiVet summary of disease and links to key references on CABI]
* [http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/htm/bc/56100.htm The disease in the Merck veterinary manual]
* [http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/htm/bc/56100.htm The disease in the Merck veterinary manual] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303204645/http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/htm/bc/56100.htm |date=2016-03-03 }}
* [http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/003/X1703E/X1703E00.htm Field manual for recognition, at fao.org]
* [https://archive.today/20080626101748/http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/003/X1703E/X1703E00.htm Field manual for recognition, at fao.org]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061013035241/http://www.vet.uga.edu/vpp/gray_book/FAD/pdp.htm Overview at vet.uga.edu]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061013035241/http://www.vet.uga.edu/vpp/gray_book/FAD/pdp.htm Overview at vet.uga.edu]
* [http://www.iah.bbsrc.ac.uk/virus/Paramyxoviridae/PPRVtree1.htm Virus Phylogenetic Tree at bbsrc.ac.uk]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070310221354/http://www.iah.bbsrc.ac.uk/virus/Paramyxoviridae/PPRVtree1.htm Virus Phylogenetic Tree at bbsrc.ac.uk]
{{Eradication of infectious disease}}
{{Eradication of infectious disease}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q707609|from2=Q29004637}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q707609|from2=Q29004637}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Ovine Rinderpest}}
[[Category:Sheep and goat diseases]]
[[Category:Sheep and goat diseases]]
[[Category:Animal virology]]
[[Category:Animal viral diseases]]
[[Category:Infectious diseases with eradication efforts]]
[[Category:Infectious diseases with eradication efforts]]
[[Category:Paramyxoviridae]]

Latest revision as of 20:19, 5 December 2024

Morbillivirus caprinae
Virus classification Edit this classification
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Negarnaviricota
Class: Monjiviricetes
Order: Mononegavirales
Family: Paramyxoviridae
Genus: Morbillivirus
Species:
Morbillivirus caprinae
Synonyms[1]
  • Peste-des-petits-ruminants virus
  • Pest des petits ruminants virus

Ovine rinderpest, also commonly known as peste des petits ruminants (PPR), is a contagious disease primarily affecting goats and sheep; however, camels and wild small ruminants can also be affected.[2] PPR is currently present in North, Central, West and East Africa, the Middle East, South Asia[3] and Southern Europe.[4] It is caused by Morbillivirus caprinae in the genus Morbillivirus, and is closely related to, among others, Morbillivirus pecoris (rinderpest), Morbillivirus hominis (Measles virus), and Morbillivirus canis (also known as canine distemper virus). The disease is highly contagious, and can have an 80–100% mortality rate in acute cases in an epizootic setting. The virus does not infect humans.

The disease was first described in 1942 in Côte d'Ivoire, and has since been detected in more than 70 countries in the world.[5]

In 2017, the disease was reported to be affecting saiga antelope in Mongolia, causing near-catastrophic herd depletion for the endangered species.[6]

In 2018, it was stated that the disease was reported to be present in Bulgaria close to the border with Turkey.[7] In a flock of 540 sheep and goats, two animals tested positive and one died, with disease confirmed by only one laboratory without any further tests.[8] Nevertheless, over 4000 sheep and goats were killed.[9]

Synonyms

[edit]

PPR is also known as goat plague, kata, syndrome of stomatitis-pneumoenteritis, and ovine rinderpest.[10]

Official agencies such as the FAO and OIE use the French name "peste des petits ruminants" with several spelling variants.

Signs and symptoms

[edit]

Symptoms are similar to those of rinderpest in cattle and involves oral necrosis, mucopurulent nasal and ocular discharges, cough, pneumonia, and diarrhea,[11] though they vary according to the previous immune status of the sheep, the geographic location, the time of year, or if the infection is new or chronic. They also vary according to the breed of sheep. However, fever in addition to either diarrhea or signs of oral discomfort is sufficient to suspect the diagnosis.[11] Incubation period is 3–5 days.[12]

Hyperacute cases

[edit]

Hyperacute cases are found dead without previous symptoms. They die with a serous, foamy, or haemorrhagic discharge coming out of the nose.

Acute cases at onset

[edit]

In acute cases, animals are recumbent, sometimes in self-auscultation position. Body temperature is high (40.5 to 41 °C) in the beginning of the onset in acute cases. The most typical signs are seen in the digestive tract. When entering an affected flock, one sees many animals with hind limbs stained by sticky faeces. Some sheep have an arched back and show pain when defecating. Tenesmus may be noticed when taking rectal temperature. Fluid faeces are olive green to brown. Examination of the mouth shows ulceration of the buccal mucosae, especially on the inner face of the lips, and neighboring gum. There can be periodontitis or serous nasal exudate and conjunctivitis.

Evolution of acute cases

[edit]

Nasal discharge becomes mucopurulent and may obstruct the nose. A dry, fitful coughing develops. Death occurs from 5 to 10 days after the onset of the fever. Some animals may recover, but a dry, stertorous coughing often persists for some days.[13] Besides coughing, there is intensive labial dermatitis with scab formation, resembling orf.[14] Miscarriages may occur.[15]

  • Self-auscultation in an acute case
    Self-auscultation in an acute case
  • Hind legs stained with sticky diarrhoea
    Hind legs stained with sticky diarrhoea
  • Arched back (painful defecation)
    Arched back (painful defecation)
  • inflammation and erosion of the mouth
    inflammation and erosion of the mouth
  • Periodontitis
    Periodontitis
  • Mucopurulent nasal exudate
    Mucopurulent nasal exudate
  • Orf-like scabs on lips in a recovering case, Day 8
    Orf-like scabs on lips in a recovering case, Day 8

Cause

[edit]

Peste des petits ruminants is caused by a Morbillivirus – Morbillivirus caprinae – which is related to but distinct from the now extirpated Rinderpest virus. Four genotypes (lineages) of the virus are described.[11] Their classification is based on the nucleoprotein (N) or previously the fusion (F) protein gene. Lineages I and II are found mainly in West Africa. Lineage III is generally found in East Africa. Lineage IV was long known as the Asian lineage, but has now spread to the African continent and become the most prevalent lineage of all.[16]

Epidemiology

[edit]

Origin and spread

[edit]

This virus appears to have evolved at the start of the 20th century in Nigeria.[17] The extant genotypes subsequently appeared in West Africa (lineages I and II), East Africa and Arabia (lineage III), and Pakistan–India (lineage IV).[11]

The first description of the disease was published in 1942 and relates to an outbreak in Côte d’Ivoire, West Africa, in goats and sheep in 1940.[18][11] It spread to East Africa and Arabia at the beginning of the 1980s and to Pakistan and India in the early 1990s (Calcutta goat markets) finally reaching Tibet in 2007.[11] The first description of this virus in India was in 1987.

The outbreak in Burkina Faso in 1999 was caused by the lineage I group. Genotype III has caused outbreaks in Ethiopia (1996) and also in Arabia, southern India, and Tamil Nadu (1992). This lineage was found in Yemen in 2001. Genotype IV has been isolated in Kuwait in 1999.

Geographical repartition

[edit]

As of 2017, the disease is present in West Africa, part of Central Africa (Gabon, Central African Republic), East Africa (north of the Equator), the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent including Nepal and Myanmar. The disease is endemic in the Indian subcontinent and is a major threat to fast-growing goat husbandry in India, causing an annual loss of around 1800 million Indian rupees.

In North Africa, only Egypt was once hit, but since summer 2008, Morocco is suffering a generalized outbreak with 133 known cases in 129 provinces, mostly affecting sheep.[19] The outbreak has precipitated the vaccination of a large number of the 17 million sheep and five million goats in the country.[20]

Dissemination

[edit]

The disease is transmitted by infected aerosols in situation of close contact of animals. The long-distance spread is by sick animals.[11] As the virus soon becomes inactive outside the body, indirect contamination is generally limited.

In an affected flock, even in pest-free regions, the disease does not progress very rapidly, in spite of the close contact between animals. New clinical cases may be observed daily for a 1-month period.[21]

Post mortem lesions

[edit]

The lesions are situated in the digestive tract. Quick post mortem examination will lead to the discovery of many haemorrhagic patches on the serous membranes, and intense pneumonia. A risk exists that it may conclude with enzootic pneumonia, inability to open the mouth, and problems with the oesophagus and different parts of the intestine.

Erosions and inflammation are widespread on buccal mucosa. The same lesions are also present in pharynx, oesophagus, and on mucus-producing epithelia of the gut, from abomasum to rectum. Zebra-striped lesions on coecum and colon are said to be typical in some cases. Rarely, also petechiae are on the rumen mucosa.[22]

Microscopic lesions

[edit]

Microscopic study of both natural and experimental cases revealed congestion and edema of the lungs, while in other cases it revealed a network of fibrin infiltrated with neutrophils, the formation of syncytia and giant cells, and the presence of a pink-colored bacterial colony.[citation needed]  There was infiltration of neutrophils and mononuclear cells within the alveoli, bronchioles, alveolar wall, and interstitium of the lung.[citation needed]  Microscopic analysis also revealed that there was interstitial pneumonia followed by sloughing of the bronchial epithelium in the lungs and the prominence of type II pneumocytes.[citation needed] Numerous inflammatory cells were found in the submucosa and lamina propria of intestinal samples, and vacuolar degeneration and syncytial cells, which are microscopic features, were observed in hepatocytes of liver samples from goats. Periportal multifocal lymphocytic infiltrations were common in the liver parenchyma.[citation needed]

Leptomeningitis and nonsuppurative encephalitis were visible in brain sections under a microscope, and these conditions were characterized by vascular congestion, hemorrhages in the parenchyma, perivascular cuffing with mild to moderate mononuclear cells (mostly lymphocytes and few macrophages), focal to diffuse microgliosis, neuronal degeneration, satellitosis, and neuronophagia.[23]

In summary Epithelial cells, alveolar macrophages, lungs, and hepatocytes all showed histopathological alterations, primarily infiltrations of inflammatory cells, syncytia, and presence of intranuclear and/or intracytoplasmic eosinophillic inclusions.[24]

Diagnosis

[edit]

History and clinical signs enable a presumptive diagnosis to be made in endemic regions. The virus can be detected in acute cases from various swabs and blood samples, using PCR and ELISA. Antibodies can also be detected by ELISA.[15]

Treatment and control

[edit]

Antibiotics such as chloramphenicol, penicillin, and streptomycin can be used and supportive treatment may be helpful.[15] Additionally, a vaccine has been developed that may decrease death in the flock.[15] Movement restrictions and slaughter of affected flocks may be required in an attempt to eradicate the disease.[15] A global eradication programme has been developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Organisation for Animal Health.[25] More information can be found on FAO's website on the implementation of this global plan.[26] It is considered feasible to eradicate ovine rinderpest in 15 years, starting in the year 2016.[11]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "ICTV Taxonomy history: Small ruminant morbillivirus". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Retrieved 15 January 2019.
  2. ^ Munir, M. (2014-10-01). "Role of Wild Small Ruminants in the Epidemiology of Peste Des Petits Ruminants". Transboundary and Emerging Diseases. 61 (5): 411–424. doi:10.1111/tbed.12052. ISSN 1865-1682. PMID 23305511.
  3. ^ Banyard, Ashley C.; Parida, Satya; Batten, Carrie; Oura, Chris; Kwiatek, Olivier; Libeau, Genevieve (2010). "Global distribution of peste des petits ruminants virus and prospects for improved diagnosis and control". Journal of General Virology. 91 (12): 2885–2897. doi:10.1099/vir.0.025841-0. PMID 20844089.
  4. ^ "Greece - Peste des petits ruminants virus (Inf. with) - Follow up report 6". Retrieved 26 July 2024.
  5. ^ "Peste des Petits Ruminants". Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations.
  6. ^ "PESTE DES PETITS RUMINANTS – MONGOLIA (03): (HOVD) SAIGA ANTELOPE". ProMED-mail. 9 March 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
  7. ^ "Bulgaria reports another case of ovine rinderpest". Reuters. 19 July 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
  8. ^ Prevalence of Antimicrobial Resistance in Ruminants in Bulgaria: A Pilot Study
  9. ^ Protests amid outrage over killing of sheep and goats over rinderpest outbreak in Bulgaria
  10. ^ Parida, S.; Muniraju, M.; Mahapatra, M.; Muthuchelvan, D.; Buczkowski, H.; Banyard, A.C. (2015). "Peste des petits ruminants". Veterinary Microbiology. 181 (1–2): 90–106. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.08.009. PMC 4655833. PMID 26443889.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h Taylor, William (2015). "The global eradication of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) within 15 years—is this a pipe dream?". Tropical Animal Health and Production. 48 (3): 559–667. doi:10.1007/s11250-016-0993-x. PMID 26851956. S2CID 255107410.
  12. ^ "Rinderpest | animal disease". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-12-07.
  13. ^ J. Berrada, Observations des premiers cas confirmés de peste des petits ruminants au Maroc, oral presentation, El Jadida, 31-07-2008.
  14. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, op cit.
  15. ^ a b c d e Peste des Petits Ruminants Archived 2013-02-22 at archive.today reviewed and published by WikiVet, accessed 10 October 2011.
  16. ^ Kwiatek, Olivier; Ali, Yahia Hassan; Saeed, Intisar Kamil; Khalafalla, Abdelmelik Ibrahim; Mohamed, Osama Ishag; Abu Obeida, Ali; Abdelrahman, Magdi Badawi; Osman, Halima Mohamed; Taha, Khalid Mohamed (2011). "Asian Lineage of Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus, Africa". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 17 (7): 1223–1231. doi:10.3201/eid1707.101216. ISSN 1080-6040. PMC 3381390. PMID 21762576.
  17. ^ Muniraju, M; Munir, M; Parthiban, AR; Banyard, AC; Bao, J; Wang, Z; Ayebazibwe, C; Ayelet, G; El Harrak, M; Mahapatra, M; Libeau, G; Batten, C; Parida, S (2014). "Molecular evolution of peste des petits ruminants virus". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 20 (12): 2023–2033. doi:10.3201/eid2012.140684. PMC 4257836. PMID 25418782.
  18. ^ Dhar, Pronab; Sreenivasa, B.P; Barrett, Thomas; Corteyn, Mandy; Singh, R.P; Bandyopadhyay, S.K (2002). "Recent epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV)". Veterinary Microbiology. 88 (2): 153–159. doi:10.1016/s0378-1135(02)00102-5. PMID 12135634.
  19. ^ "Outbreak of 'peste des petits ruminants' in Morocco". FAO Newsroom. FAO. September 9, 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-10.
  20. ^ "Morocco to vaccinate all livestock after virus outbreak". AFP. September 9, 2008. Archived from the original on May 20, 2011. Retrieved 2008-09-10.
  21. ^ L. Mahin (2008) Observations sur un foyer de Peste des petits ruminants, unpublished data.
  22. ^ Tligui, Observations nécropsiques sur les premiers cas confirmés de peste des petits ruminants au Maroc, oral presentation, El Jadida, 31-07-2008.
  23. ^ Seki, Fumio; Takeda, Makoto (2022). "Novel and classical morbilliviruses: Current knowledge of three divergent morbillivirus groups". Microbiology and Immunology. 66 (12): 552–563. doi:10.1111/1348-0421.13030. PMID 36151905. S2CID 252497033. This review cites this research. Sahoo, Monalisa; M, Dinesh; Thakor, Jigarji Chaturji; Baloni, Suraj; Saxena, Sonal; Shrivastava, Sameer; Dhama, Kuldeep; Singh, Karampal; Singh, Rajendra (2020-03-01). "Neuropathology mediated through caspase dependent extrinsic pathway in goat kids naturally infected with PPRV". Microbial Pathogenesis. 140: 103949. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2019.103949. ISSN 0882-4010. PMID 31875517. S2CID 209482267.
  24. ^ Maes, Piet; et al. (2018). "Taxonomy of the family Arenaviridae and the order Bunyavirales: Update 2018". Archives of Virology. 163 (8): 2295–2310. doi:10.1007/s00705-018-3843-5. hdl:2263/64947. PMID 29680923. S2CID 254054051. This review cites this research. Blasdell, Kim R.; Duong, Veasna; Eloit, Marc; Chretien, Fabrice; Ly, Sowath; Hul, Vibol; Deubel, Vincent; Morand, Serge; Buchy, Philippe (2016). "Evidence of human infection by a new mammarenavirus endemic to Southeastern Asia". eLife. 5. doi:10.7554/elife.13135. PMC 4900801. PMID 27278118.
  25. ^ FAO and WHO. 2016. Peste des petits ruminants GLOBAL ERADICATION PROGRAM. Rome.
  26. ^ FAO. Peste des Petits Ruminants. http://www.fao.org/ppr/en/ accessed Nov. 2016
[edit]
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