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'''Protecting power''' is the protection of electricity from shortages and blackouts. |
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[[File:Swiss Embassy in Havana.jpg|thumb|Between 1961 and 2015, [[Foreign relations of Switzerland|Switzerland]] was the protecting power of the United States in Cuba. The [[United States Interests Section in Havana]], although it was staffed by personnel of the [[United States Foreign Service]], was formally a section of the Embassy of Switzerland.<ref name=LT2015>{{fr}} Stéphane Bussard, "[http://www.letemps.ch/monde/2015/07/19/voix-suisse-etats-unis-cuba-se-tait La voix suisse des États-Unis à Cuba se tait]", ''[[Le Temps]]'', Monday 20 July 2015.</ref>]] |
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A '''protecting power''' is a country that represents another [[sovereign state]] in a country where it lacks its own [[diplomatic mission|diplomatic representation]]. It is common for protecting powers to be appointed when two countries break off diplomatic relations with each other. The protecting power is responsible for looking after the sending state's diplomatic property and citizens in the hosting state. If diplomatic relations were broken by the outbreak of war, the protecting power will also inquire into the welfare of [[prisoners of war]] and look after the interests of civilians in enemy-occupied territory. |
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==Power management== |
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The institution of protecting power dates back to the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870 and was formalized in the [[Geneva Convention (1929)|Geneva Convention of 1929]]. Protecting powers are authorized in all four of the [[Geneva Conventions]] of 1949. In addition, the International Red Cross may itself be appointed a protecting power under [[Protocol I]] (1977). The practice of selecting a protecting power in time of peace was formalized in the [[Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations]] (1961).<ref name="vienna_convention">{{cite web|title=Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations|url=http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/9_1_1961.pdf|publisher=United Nations|date=18 April 1961}}</ref><ref name=fam1020>{{cite book|title=U.S. Department of State Foreign Affairs Manual|location=7 FAM 1020|url=https://fam.state.gov/FAM/07FAM/07FAM1020.html}}</ref> |
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[[File:Lineman changing transformer.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Electricians are responsible for the protection of power outages]] |
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The practice is practised when there is a risk of [[power outages]] or when a blackout has affected parts of a country. |
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The government and power companies are responsible for the administration of power emergencies. |
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==Diplomacy== |
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In practice, the "protected power" may be able to affect one dwelling or building. If a blackout happens the power companies are called immediately and they will access the restricted area. |
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[[File:Embassy of Switzerland, Washington, D.C..jpg|thumb|Between 1991 and 2015, the Swiss Embassy in Washington DC also officially represented [[Cuban Interests Section|Cuba's interests]] in the United States.<ref name=LT2015/>]] |
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[[File:Critical assistance.ogv|thumb|President Obama thanks the Swiss government for assistance in Iran (2016)]] |
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===United States=== |
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The protecting power is appointed by the sending state and must also be acceptable to the host state. It must therefore maintain diplomatic relations with both states. In time of war, the [[Geneva Conventions]] also require the protecting power to be a neutral country. The specific responsibilities and arrangements are agreed between the protecting power, the sending state, and the host country. |
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In the [[United States]], the State Power Adminstrations (SPAs) are responsible for the management of power outages. Their administration is overseen by Local Power Districts (LPDs). When a blackout happens in all areas of a city or town , the Manager of the LPD is called and reports the blackout to the respective SPA. When a blackout has affected large parts of a state the blackout is reported to the National Power Authority (NPA). If the blackout lasts for more than a week, then it is reported to the NPA immediately. |
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In a comprehensive mandate, the protecting power carries out most diplomatic functions on behalf of the protected state. This is necessary when relations are so hostile that the sparring nations have no diplomatic or consular staff posted on each other's territory. For example, Sweden carries out limited consular functions for the United States, Canada, and Australia in North Korea.<ref name="SwedenProtecting">{{cite web|url=http://www.swedenabroad.com/en-GB/Embassies/Pyongyang/About-us/About-the-Embassy/|title=About the Embassy|publisher=Embassy of Sweden, Pyongyang|quote=In particular, Sweden functions as Protective Power for the United States, Australia and Canada, including consular responsibility for citizens.}}</ref> |
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===France=== |
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In other cases, the two nations have broken diplomatic relations, but are nevertheless willing to exchange personnel on an informal basis. The protecting power serves as the mechanism for facilitating this exchange. The embassy of the protected state is staffed by its own diplomatic personnel, but it is formally termed an "interests section" of the protecting power. Between 1991 and 2015, the [[Cuban Interests Section]] was staffed by Cubans and occupied the old Cuban embassy in Washington, D.C., but it was formally a section of the Swiss Embassy to the United States. |
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In [[France]] the electricity companies are responsible for the management of power outages and electricity shortages. In [[natural disasters]] they are reported to the Ministry of Emergency Management. |
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There is no requirement that the same protecting power be selected by both countries, although this is convenient for the purposes of communication. Each may appoint a different protecting power, provided that the choice is acceptable to the other state. There is also no requirement that a country select only one protecting power in the receiving country. During the [[Second World War]], Japan appointed Spain, Sweden and Switzerland to be its protecting powers in the United States.<ref name=levie/> |
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===Japan=== |
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In [[Japan]] the prefecture governments are responsible for the power outages. In natural disasters they are reported to the Ministry of Transport and Energy. During the [[2011 Tōhōku earthquake and tsunami|East Japan Earthquake]] the Tohoku Power Authority took measures to conserve power due to [[blackouts]]. |
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===Hong Kong=== |
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== Current mandates == |
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The [[Energy Authority]] of [[Hong Kong]] is responsible for the power management in Hong Kong. When a blackout affects part of an area, it is reported to the Energy Authority. When the blackout is severe it is reported to the Department of Infrastructure. |
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===Singapore=== |
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<!-- This section should list only current mandates. Do not add a section for historical protecting power mandates, as it would turn into a list of belligerents in almost every war since 1870. It would be better to mention the protecting power in the Wikipedia article on that topic. For example, it would be appropriate to mention that Switzerland was the protecting power in the article on US-Cuban relations. --> |
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[[SingPower]] is the governing body in [[Singapore]] responsible for the administration of power outages and electricity shortages. During the [[2016 Southern Malaysia blackout|2016 blackout in southern Malaysia]] the [[Ministry of Energy and Resources]] took measures to prevent the blackout from spreading to Singapore. |
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===New Zealand=== |
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{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" |
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|- |
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! Protecting power |
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! Protected state<br/>(Sending state) |
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! Receiving state |
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! Mandate |
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! Notes |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Canada}} |
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| {{flag|Israel}} |
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| {{flag|Cuba}} |
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| |
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| <ref>{{cite news|last1=Wootliff|first1=Raoul|title=In first since 1973, Israeli minister in ‘private’ visit to Cuba|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-first-since-1973-israeli-minister-in-private-visit-to-cuba/|work=The Times of Israel|date=3 October 2017|quote=With no Israeli embassy in the country, Canada currently represents Israel’s interests in Havana, including assisting the country’s Jewish community.}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Canada}} |
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| {{flag|Israel}} |
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| {{flag|Venezuela}} |
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| Interests section |
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| <ref>{{cite news|last1=Fenton|first1=Anthony|title=Canada will Represent Israel in Venezuela: Minister|url=http://www.dominionpaper.ca/articles/2526|work=The Dominion|issue=59|date=3 March 2009|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Kelemen|first1=Jasmina|title=Canada to represent Israel in Venezuela|url=https://www.jta.org/2009/04/21/news-opinion/israel-middle-east/canada-to-represent-israel-in-venezuela|work=Jewish Telegraphic Agency|date=21 April 2009}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Czech Republic }} |
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| {{flag|United States}} |
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| {{flag|Syria}} |
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| Interests section |
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| <ref name=fam1020/><ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Interests Section|url=http://www.mzv.cz/damascus/en/u_s_interests_section/index.html|website=Embassy of the Czech Republic in Damascus|accessdate=10 February 2017}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Greece}} |
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| {{flag|Egypt}} |
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| {{flag|Qatar}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| ''See also:'' [[Egypt–Qatar relations]] |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Italy}} |
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| {{flag|Canada}} |
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| {{flag|Iran}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref>{{cite web |title=Canada - Iran Relations |url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/iran/canada-iran/canada-iran.aspx?lang=eng |website=Canada's International Gateway |publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Oman}} |
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| {{flag|Iran}} |
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| {{flag|Canada}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref>{{cite web|title=Oman to represent Iran's Canada interests|url=http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCABRE99L0FR20131022|website=Reuters.com|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=14 August 2017}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Pakistan}} |
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| {{flag|Iran}} |
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| {{flag|United States}} |
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| Interests section |
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| ''See also:'' [[Interests Section of the Islamic Republic of Iran in the United States|Iranian Interests Section]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.daftar.org/Eng/default.asp?lang=eng|title=Interests Section of the Islamic Republic of Iran|publisher=[[Embassy of Pakistan, Washington, D.C.]]}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Romania}} |
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| {{flag|Australia}} |
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| {{flag|Syria}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref>{{cite web|title=Romanian Embassy in Syria|url=http://dfat.gov.au/about-us/our-locations/missions/Pages/romanian-embassy-in-syria.aspx|website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|accessdate=10 February 2017|language=en-us|quote=The Romanian diplomatic mission provides consular assistance to Australians}}</ref><ref name="romania-insider"/> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Romania}} |
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| {{flag|Canada}} |
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| {{flag|Syria}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref name="romania-insider">{{cite news|last1=Popescu|first1=Irina|title=Romania to represent Canada’s interests in Syria - Romania Insider|url=http://www.romania-insider.com/romania-to-represent-canadas-interests-in-syria/|work=Romania Insider|date=10 December 2014}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Romania}} |
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| {{flag|France}} |
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| {{flag|Syria}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref name="romania-insider"/> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Romania}} |
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| {{flag|Moldova}} |
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| {{flag|Syria}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref name="romania-insider"/> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Spain}} |
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| {{flag|Venezuela}} |
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| {{flag|Israel}} |
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| |
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| <ref>{{cite news|title=Venezuela: Spain Will Represent Our Interests in Israel|url=https://www.haaretz.com/1.5447902|work=Haaretz|agency=Associated Press|date=16 September 2009|language=en}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Sweden}} |
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| {{flag|Australia}} |
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| {{flag|North Korea}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref name="sweden">{{cite web|title=The Embassy: Pyongyang|url=http://www.swedenabroad.com/en-GB/Embassies/Pyongyang/About-us/About-the-Embassy/|publisher=Swedenabroad.com}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Sweden}} |
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| {{flag|Canada}} |
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| {{flag|North Korea}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref name="sweden"/> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Sweden}} |
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| {{flag|Denmark}} |
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| {{flag|North Korea}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref name="sweden"/> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Sweden}} |
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| {{flag|Finland}} |
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| {{flag|North Korea}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref name="sweden"/> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Sweden}} |
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| {{flag|Iceland}} |
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| {{flag|North Korea}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref name="sweden"/> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Sweden}} |
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| {{flag|Italy}} |
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| {{flag|North Korea}} |
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| Schengen visa applications |
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| <ref name="sweden"/> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Sweden}} |
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| {{flag|Norway}} |
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| {{flag|North Korea}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref name="sweden"/> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Sweden}} |
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| {{flag|Spain}} |
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| {{flag|North Korea}} |
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| Schengen visa applications |
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| <ref name="sweden"/> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Sweden}} |
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| {{flag|United States}} |
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| {{flag|North Korea}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref name=fam1020/><ref name="sweden"/> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Switzerland}} |
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| {{flag|Georgia}} |
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| {{flag|Russia}} |
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| Interests section |
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| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.ge/MainNav/EmbassiesRepresentations/GeorgianMissionsAbroad/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1-%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A9%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1-%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1-%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1-%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90.aspx|title=Georgia's Interests Section of the Swiss Confederation's Embassy to the Russian Federation|publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia]]}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Switzerland}} |
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| {{flag|Iran}} |
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| {{flag|Egypt}} |
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| Interests section |
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| <ref name=ch>{{cite web|author1=Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs|title=Protective power mandates|url=http://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/en/home/topics/peasec/peac/confre/goch/protpw.html|date=4 April 2012}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Switzerland}} |
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| {{flag|Iran}} |
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| {{flag|Saudi Arabia}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref name="Arabia - Iran">{{cite web|title=Good offices: Switzerland takes on protecting power mandate for Iran and Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/en/home/aussenpolitik/menschenrechte-menschliche-sicherheit/frieden/die_guten_dienstederschweiz/schutzmachtmandate.html/eda/en/meta/news/2017/10/25/68540.html|website=eda.admin.ch|publisher=Swiss Foreign Affairs Department|accessdate=8 February 2018}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Switzerland}} |
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| {{flag|Russia}} |
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| {{flag|Georgia}} |
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| Interests section |
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| <ref name=ch/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.georgia.mid.ru/|title=Embassy of Switzerland in Georgia, Russian Federation Interests Section|publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Russia)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation]]}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Switzerland}} |
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| {{flag|Saudi Arabia}} |
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| {{flag|Iran}} |
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| Comprehensive |
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| <ref name="Arabia - Iran" /> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Switzerland}} |
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| {{flag|United States}} |
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| {{flag|Iran}} |
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| Interests section |
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| <ref name=fam1020/><ref name=ch/> |
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|- |
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! scope="row" | {{flag|Turkey}} |
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| {{flag|United States}} |
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| {{flag|Libya}} |
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| Interests section |
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| <ref name=fam1020/><ref>http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/03/20/turkey.us.libya/</ref> |
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|} |
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[[KiwiPower]] is the administrating body for power management and failures. During the [[2011 Christchurch earthquake]] the [[South Island Council]] took measures to temporarily stop [[utilities]] during earthquakes. |
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==History== |
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== Safety== |
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Proper installation and wiring is needed to ensure the safety of the electrical system. This follows the electrocution of a Japanese man in a [[Seoul]] shopping centre in June 2013. In the United States the [[Department of Mining and Energy]] set new laws in October 2011 for all electricians to conduct a 6-month safety check up following the death of 13 people in a [[New York City]] shopping mall by electrocution. Power stations in [[South Korea]] need check ups following the death of a worker in November 2016. In Singapore the [[National Energy Authority]] set new laws that require inspection of electric power systems for faulty equipment. |
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<!-- This section should be reserved for important developments in the institution of protecting power. We do not want this to turn into a list of every pair of belligerents in every war fought since 1870. --> |
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[[Category:Power management]] |
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[[Category:Safety]] |
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=== Origins === |
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[[Category:Electric power blackouts]] |
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[[Category:Electricity shortages]] |
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Although protecting powers have existed in diplomatic usage since the 16th century, the modern institution of protecting power originated in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870–1871.<ref name="levie"/><ref name="clapham2015">{{cite book |editor1-last=Clapham |editor1-first=Andrew |editor2-last=Gaeta |editor2-first=Paola |editor3-last=Sassòli |editor3-first=Marco |title=The 1949 Geneva Conventions: A Commentary |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191003523}}</ref>{{rp|550}} All of the belligerents appointed protecting powers, necessitated by the expulsion of diplomats and placing of restrictions on enemy aliens.<ref name=levie>{{cite journal|last1=Levie|first1=Howard|title=Prisoners of War and the Protecting Power|journal=American Journal of International Law|volume=55|year=1961|url=https://www.usnwc.edu/getattachment/3264c3d1-de9f-4e0f-b634-cc2adbc88692/Prisoners-of-War-and-the-Protecting-Power.aspx|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714123909/https://www.usnwc.edu/getattachment/3264c3d1-de9f-4e0f-b634-cc2adbc88692/Prisoners-of-War-and-the-Protecting-Power.aspx|archivedate=2014-07-14|df=}}</ref> The United States acted as protecting power for the [[North German Confederation]] and several of the smaller German states, while Switzerland was the protecting power for [[Grand Duchy of Baden|Baden]] and [[Kingdom of Bavaria|Bavaria]], and Russia for [[Kingdom of Württemberg|Württemberg]].<ref name="washburne_memoirs_1">{{cite book|last1=Washburne|first1=E. B.|title=Recollections of a Minister to France, Volume I|date=1887|publisher=Scribner|location=New York}}</ref> Meanwhile, the United Kingdom served as the protecting power for France. |
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The energetic efforts of [[Elihu B. Washburne]], the [[United States Minister to France]], set a precedent for the actions of protecting powers in war.<ref name="berridge2012"/> The American flag was raised over the North German Embassy, and the embassy archives were transferred to the U.S. [[legation]] for safekeeping. Washburne arranged for the evacuation of 30,000 North German subjects from France in the opening days of the war. As the only chief of mission from a major power to remain in the French capital during the [[Siege of Paris (1870–71)|Siege of Paris]], he was also charged with the protection of seven Latin American consulates and was responsible for feeding 3,000 German civilians who were stuck in the city.<ref name="washburne_memoirs_1"/><ref name="hill2012">{{cite book|editor1-last=Hill|editor1-first=Michael|title=Elihu Washburne: the Diary and Letters of America's Minister to France during the Siege and Commune of Paris|date=2012|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=9781451665307}}</ref> |
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=== Early developments === |
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After the Franco-Prussian War, the appointment of protecting powers became [[customary international law]]. In subsequent wars, the protecting powers expanded their duties with the consent of the belligerents. In the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], both sides selected the United States as their protecting power, establishing the concept of a reciprocal mandate. During the [[Spanish–American War]], the United States requested neutral inspection of [[prisoner of war]] camps for the first time.<ref name="levie" /> |
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Since the institution of protecting power had not been formalized by treaty, disputes arose over the protecting power's rights and responsibilities. In the [[Second Boer War]], the British Empire selected the United States to be its protecting power, but the Boers refused to allow the U.S. to transmit funds from the British government to prisoners of war. The Netherlands, acting as the protecting power for the Boer Republics, was also unable to secure an agreement to exchange the names of prisoners of war. Two years later during the [[Russo-Japanese War]], the belligerents agreed to exchange lists of prisoners, communicating through France as the protecting power for Russia, and the United States as the protecting power for Japan. The practice of swapping prisoner lists became customary and was eventually included in the [[Geneva Convention (1929)|Geneva Convention of 1929]].<ref name="blake1990">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Blake|first=James J.|title=Pragmatic Diplomacy: The Origins and Use of the Protecting Power|editor-last=Newsom|editor-first=David D.|encyclopedia=Diplomacy Under a Foreign Flag: When Nations Break Relations|date=1990|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|isbn=0312040512}}</ref> |
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=== World Wars === |
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The United States was initially a popular choice for protecting power, going back to its protection of the North German Confederation during the Franco-Prussian War. The pinnacle of American diplomatic protection came during [[World War I]], when the United States accepted reciprocal mandates from five of the largest belligerents on both sides: Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire. Between 1914 and 1917, the United States accepted a total of 54 mandates as protecting power.<ref name="newsom1990_a">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Appendix A: The United States as a Protecting Power, by Country and Date|editor-last=Newsom|editor-first=David D.|encyclopedia=Diplomacy Under a Foreign Flag: When Nations Break Relations|date=1990|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|isbn=0312040512}}</ref> When the United States entered the war on the Allied side in 1917, the American mandates were transferred to smaller neutrals, with the Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland being popular choices. |
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In the [[interwar period]], the role of a protecting power was finally formalized in the [[Geneva Convention (1929)|Geneva Convention of 1929]]. Protecting powers were allowed to inspect prisoner of war camps, interview prisoners in private, communicate freely with prisoners, and supply books for the prison library. However, a suggestion by the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] that it be made responsible for ensuring compliance with the treaty was rejected.<ref name="levie"/> |
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The United States remained a popular choice at the start of World War II, accepting 75 mandates on behalf of Allied countries between 1939 and 1941. However, the United States was no longer seen as a disinterested neutral, and none of the Axis countries asked the United States to be its protecting power.<ref name="newsom1990_a"/> The greater scope of the war also disqualified two of the most popular protecting powers of the First World War: [[Francoist Spain]] remained neutral but was Axis-leaning, and the Netherlands were [[History of the Netherlands (1939–1945)#German occupation|occupied by Germany]]. As a result, [[Switzerland]] and [[Sweden]] became the most popular choices for protecting power. Switzerland formally undertook 219 mandates for 35 states, and represented another eight states unofficially, while Sweden accepted 114 mandates for 28 states.<ref name=schelbert>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Schelbert |first1=Leo |article=Good offices |title=Historical Dictionary of Switzerland |year=2014 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9781442233522 |page=153}}</ref> |
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The [[Geneva Conventions]] of 1949 addressed the abuses that had taken place during World War II. The appointment of a protecting power had been optional in the 1929 Convention, but the 1949 Convention made it obligatory.<ref name="clapham2015"/>{{rp|550}} All four of the Conventions refer to protecting powers, and the Fourth Geneva Convention formalized the role of protecting powers toward civilians. The detaining power was also required to appoint a substitute whenever the benefit of a protecting power was lost. 70% of prisoners of war had lost their protecting power in World War II because their governments were disputed or had ceased to exist. Anticipating a war in which every country was a belligerent, the Conventions provide the option of appointing an international organization as protecting power.<ref>{{cite web |title=Commentary of 2016, Article 10: Substitutes for Protecting Powers, Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field. Geneva, 12 August 1949 |url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Comment.xsp?action=openDocument&documentId=85D4222674253FAAC1257F7D0035A6C7 |website=Historical Treaties and Documents |publisher=International Committee of the Red Cross |date=2016}}</ref> |
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=== Cold War === |
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The superpower rivalry of the [[Cold War]] led to changes in the institution of protecting power. The United States, which had accepted over 200 mandates as protecting power before 1945, was no longer seen as a disinterested third party and managed to secure only one mandate after 1945.<ref name="newsom1990_a"/> Instead, the United States had to appoint a protecting power to represent its interests over a dozen times since 1945.<ref name="newsom1990_b">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Appendix B: Protecting Powers That Have Represented the United States, by Country and Date|editor-last=Newsom|editor-first=David D.|encyclopedia=Diplomacy Under a Foreign Flag: When Nations Break Relations|date=1990|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|isbn=0312040512}}</ref> Switzerland and Sweden both chose to remain non-aligned in the Cold War and refused to join any military alliances, leading to their continued popularity as protecting powers. Since 1945, Switzerland has held as many as 24 simultaneous mandates as protecting power.<ref name="ch"/> |
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The interests section was born in the aftermath of [[Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] in 1965, when nine African countries broke off diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom. The protecting power for the United Kingdom notified the receiving governments that British diplomats were members of the protecting power's own embassy. As a result, the British diplomats retained their [[diplomatic immunity]] and could stay in the former British embassy, which had been placed into the charge of the protecting power.<ref name="satow6th">{{cite book|editor-last=Roberts|editor-first=Ivor|title=Satow's Diplomatic Practice|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780198739104|edition=6th}}</ref> The innovation was widely adopted after the [[Six-Day War]] of 1967. The Arab states allowed American diplomats to remain in their capitals as the ''U.S. Interests Section'' of the respective protecting power, while Israel allowed Soviet diplomats to [[List of diplomatic missions in Israel|remain in Tel Aviv]] as the ''Soviet Interests Section'' of the Finnish Embassy.<ref name="bergus1990">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Bergus|first=Donald C.|title=U.S. Diplomacy under the Flag of Spain, Cairo, 1967-74|editor-last=Newsom|editor-first=David D.|encyclopedia=Diplomacy Under a Foreign Flag: When Nations Break Relations|date=1990|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|isbn=0312040512}}</ref> |
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The fiercest proxy wars of the Cold War were civil wars, including the [[Vietnam War]]. Because the principal belligerents each claimed to be the country's sole legitimate government, they did not recognize each other and refused to maintain diplomatic relations with any countries that recognized the other side. This difficulty was resolved by [[Protocol I]] (1977) to the [[Geneva Conventions]], which stipulated that the belligerents should nominate protecting powers to the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]]. The Red Cross would then approach any countries that appeared on both lists, without the belligerents having to communicate with each other directly. If no arrangement could be made with a third country, then the belligerents had to accept the Red Cross or another international organization to act as the protecting power.<ref name="berridge2012">{{cite book|last1=Berridge|first1=Geoff R.|title=Embassies in Armed Conflict|date=2012|publisher=Continuum|location=New York|isbn=9781441104625}}</ref> |
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== Other meanings == |
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* Historically a protecting power held a permanent [[protectorate]] over a weaker state, which in practice could constitute a form of colonial domination, in the logic of [[indirect rule]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} |
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* The term "friendly protection" also applied to "guarantor" state(s) vowing to prevent the protected state (or a specific part) being overrun by a third party. |
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=== Consular services === |
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Certain countries may have agreements to provide limited consular services to the citizens of other countries. This does not necessarily constitute a protecting power relationship, as the host country may not have formally agreed, and there may in fact be diplomatic relations between the host country and the third country, but no physical representation. Without the agreement of the host country, [[consular officials]] in this role may not be recognized as representing the interests of another, and be limited to a "good offices"{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} role. |
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* The United States provides consular services to citizens of the [[Federated States of Micronesia]], the Republic of the [[Marshall Islands]] and the Republic of [[Palau]], which had been part of a US [[Trust Territory]].{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} |
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* Certain Commonwealth countries, including Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United Kingdom, have agreements in certain countries to provide consular services for citizens of the other countries where they do not have physical representation. The United Kingdom provides consular assistance to Canadians abroad where there is no Canadian mission, as stated in each [[Canadian passport]]. Under the [[Canada–Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement]] Canada provides consular assistance to Australian citizens to several states in Latin America and Africa; while [[Australian diplomatic missions]] reciprocate in several Asia-Pacific states.<ref>{{cite web |title=Embassies and consulates |url=http://travel.gc.ca/assistance/embassies |publisher=Government of Canada |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Our embassies and consulates overseas |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/missions/ |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |publisher=Australian Government |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>DFAT Australia http://www.dfat.gov.au/missions/</ref> |
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* Under Article 20 section 2c of the [[Treaty on the functioning of the European Union]] citizens of [[European Union]] countries may request consular services at the missions of other EU countries when their home country does not have a mission locally.<ref name="TFEU consolidated">[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2008:115:0047:0199:EN:PDF Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union], Europa</ref> |
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* In 2006, the governments of Montenegro and Serbia adopted the Memorandum of Agreement between the Republic of Montenegro and the Republic of Serbia on Consular Protection and Services to the Citizens of Montenegro. By this agreement, [[Serbia]], through its network of diplomatic and consular [[Serbian diplomatic missions|missions]], provides consular services to the Montenegrin citizens on the territory of states in which Montenegro has no missions of its own.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mip.gov.me/en/index.php/Bilateral-Relations/republic-of-serbia.html |title=Bilateral Relations, The Republic of Serbia |website=Montenegro Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration |accessdate=2012-12-31 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605062140/http://www.mip.gov.me/en/index.php/Bilateral-Relations/republic-of-serbia.html |archivedate=2012-06-05}}</ref> |
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== See also == |
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* {{Portal-inline|International relations}} |
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==Notes and references== |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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==External links== |
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* [https://fam.state.gov/fam/07fam/07fam1070.html "Representation of Interests of the United States by Third Powers"], ''Foreign Affairs Manual'', U.S. State Department |
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{{Diplomacy}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Protecting Power}} |
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[[Category:Articles containing video clips]] |
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[[Category:De facto embassies]] |
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[[Category:Diplomacy]] |
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[[Category:International law]] |
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[[Category:International relations terminology]] |
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[[Category:States by power status]] |
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Revision as of 02:40, 4 January 2019
Protecting power is the protection of electricity from shortages and blackouts.
Power management
The practice is practised when there is a risk of power outages or when a blackout has affected parts of a country.
The government and power companies are responsible for the administration of power emergencies.
In practice, the "protected power" may be able to affect one dwelling or building. If a blackout happens the power companies are called immediately and they will access the restricted area.
United States
In the United States, the State Power Adminstrations (SPAs) are responsible for the management of power outages. Their administration is overseen by Local Power Districts (LPDs). When a blackout happens in all areas of a city or town , the Manager of the LPD is called and reports the blackout to the respective SPA. When a blackout has affected large parts of a state the blackout is reported to the National Power Authority (NPA). If the blackout lasts for more than a week, then it is reported to the NPA immediately.
France
In France the electricity companies are responsible for the management of power outages and electricity shortages. In natural disasters they are reported to the Ministry of Emergency Management.
Japan
In Japan the prefecture governments are responsible for the power outages. In natural disasters they are reported to the Ministry of Transport and Energy. During the East Japan Earthquake the Tohoku Power Authority took measures to conserve power due to blackouts.
Hong Kong
The Energy Authority of Hong Kong is responsible for the power management in Hong Kong. When a blackout affects part of an area, it is reported to the Energy Authority. When the blackout is severe it is reported to the Department of Infrastructure.
Singapore
SingPower is the governing body in Singapore responsible for the administration of power outages and electricity shortages. During the 2016 blackout in southern Malaysia the Ministry of Energy and Resources took measures to prevent the blackout from spreading to Singapore.
New Zealand
KiwiPower is the administrating body for power management and failures. During the 2011 Christchurch earthquake the South Island Council took measures to temporarily stop utilities during earthquakes.
Safety
Proper installation and wiring is needed to ensure the safety of the electrical system. This follows the electrocution of a Japanese man in a Seoul shopping centre in June 2013. In the United States the Department of Mining and Energy set new laws in October 2011 for all electricians to conduct a 6-month safety check up following the death of 13 people in a New York City shopping mall by electrocution. Power stations in South Korea need check ups following the death of a worker in November 2016. In Singapore the National Energy Authority set new laws that require inspection of electric power systems for faulty equipment.