Location via proxy:   [ UP ]  
[Report a bug]   [Manage cookies]                
Jump to content

Protein quality: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous edit
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
ce
remove background styling that frequently causes unreadable text; please test any changes in dark mode (via WP:JWB)
 
(13 intermediate revisions by 10 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|Protein ranking for human nutrition}}
{{refimprove|date=May 2019}}
{{refimprove|date=May 2019}}
'''Protein quality''' is the [[Digestion#Protein digestion|digestibility]] and quantity of [[essential amino acid]]s for providing the proteins in correct ratios for human consumption. There are various methods that rank the quality of different types of [[protein]], some of which are outdated and no longer in use, or not considered as useful as they once were thought to be. The [[Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score]] (PDCAAS), which was recommended by the [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] (FAO), became the industry standard in 1993. FAO has recently recommended the newer [[Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score]] (DIAAS) to supersede PDCAAS. The dairy industry is in favor of this{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}, because while PDCAAS truncates all protein types that exceed the [[essential amino acid]] (EAA) requirements to 1.0, DIAAS allows a higher than 1.0 ranking: while for example both soy protein isolate and whey isolate are ranked 1.0 according to PDCAAS, in the DIAAS system, whey has a higher score than soy.
'''Protein quality''' is the [[Digestion#Protein digestion|digestibility]] and quantity of [[essential amino acid]]s for providing the proteins in correct ratios for human consumption. There are various methods that rank the quality of different types of [[protein]], some of which are outdated and no longer in use, or not considered as useful as they once were thought to be. The [[Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score]] (PDCAAS), which was recommended by the [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] (FAO), became the industry standard in 1993. FAO has recently recommended the newer [[Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score]] (DIAAS) to supersede PDCAAS.


==PDCAAS versus DIAAS==
==PDCAAS versus DIAAS==
The main limitations of PDCAAS is that it does not take into account [[Antinutrient|anti-nutrient]] factors like [[phytic acid]] and [[trypsin inhibitor]]s, which limit the absorption of protein among other nutrients, and its use of [[feces|fecal]] digestibility, whereas in the DIAAS system, [[ileum|ileal]] digestibility of the essential amino acids is emphasized as a more accurate measure of protein absorption.<ref name=pmid24482589/><ref name="pmid27708684">{{cite journal | last=Phillips | first=Stuart M. | title=The impact of protein quality on the promotion of resistance exercise-induced changes in muscle mass | journal=Nutrition & Metabolism | volume=13 | pages=64 | pmid=27708684 | pmc=5041535 | doi=10.1186/s12986-016-0124-8 | year=2016 }}</ref><ref name="RR Al. 2019">{{cite journal | last=RR | first=Wolfe | last2=Al. | first2=Et | title= Protein quality as determined by the Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score: Evaluation of factors underlying the calculation: Table 1| journal=Nutrition Reviews | volume=74 | issue=9 | pages=584–99 | date=2019-05-31 | pmid=27452871 | pmc=6322793 | doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuw022 }}</ref> For this reason, DIAAS is promoted as the superior method and preferable over the PDCAAS.<ref name=pmid27708684/><ref name=pmid25644361/> Due to not factoring in anti-nutritional content into the digestibility equation, the PDCAAS has consequently been criticized for overestimating protein quality.<ref name=pmid9164998>{{cite journal | last=Sarwar | first=Ghulam | title=The Protein Digestibility–Corrected Amino Acid Score Method Overestimates Quality of Proteins Containing Antinutritional Factors and of Poorly Digestible Proteins Supplemented with Limiting Amino Acids in Rats | journal=The Journal of Nutrition | volume=127 | issue=5 | date=1997-05-01 | issn=0022-3166 | pmid=9164998 | doi=10.1093/jn/127.5.758 | pages=758–764| doi-access=free }}</ref> Other older methods like BV, PER, NPU and [[nitrogen balance]] may not reveal much about the amino acid profile and digestibility of the protein source in question, but can still be considered useful in that they determine other aspects of protein quality not taken into account by PDCAAS and DIAAS.
The main limitations of PDCAAS is that it does not take into account [[Antinutrient|anti-nutrient]] factors like [[phytic acid]] and [[trypsin inhibitor]]s, which limit the absorption of protein among other nutrients, and its use of [[feces|fecal]] digestibility, whereas in the DIAAS system, [[ileum|ileal]] digestibility of the essential amino acids is emphasized as a more accurate measure of protein absorption.<ref name=pmid24482589/><ref name="pmid27708684">{{cite journal | last=Phillips | first=Stuart M. | title=The impact of protein quality on the promotion of resistance exercise-induced changes in muscle mass | journal=Nutrition & Metabolism | volume=13 | pages=64 | pmid=27708684 | pmc=5041535 | doi=10.1186/s12986-016-0124-8 | year=2016 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="RR Al. 2019">{{cite journal | last1=RR | first1=Wolfe | last2=Al. | first2=Et | title= Protein quality as determined by the Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score: Evaluation of factors underlying the calculation: Table 1| journal=Nutrition Reviews | volume=74 | issue=9 | pages=584–99 | date=2019-05-31 | pmid=27452871 | pmc=6322793 | doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuw022 }}</ref> For this reason, DIAAS is promoted as the superior method and preferable over the PDCAAS.<ref name=pmid27708684/><ref name=pmid25644361/> Due to not factoring in anti-nutritional content into the digestibility equation, the PDCAAS has consequently been criticized for overestimating protein quality.<ref name=pmid9164998>{{cite journal | last=Sarwar | first=Ghulam | title=The Protein Digestibility–Corrected Amino Acid Score Method Overestimates Quality of Proteins Containing Antinutritional Factors and of Poorly Digestible Proteins Supplemented with Limiting Amino Acids in Rats | journal=The Journal of Nutrition | volume=127 | issue=5 | date=1997-05-01 | issn=0022-3166 | pmid=9164998 | doi=10.1093/jn/127.5.758 | pages=758–764| doi-access=free }}</ref> Other older methods like BV, PER, NPU and [[nitrogen balance]] may not reveal much about the amino acid profile and digestibility of the protein source in question, but can still be considered useful in that they determine other aspects of protein quality not taken into account by PDCAAS and DIAAS.


Due to the difficulties of measuring amino acid digestion through the ileum, a minimally invasive dual-tracer method has been developed for the DIAAS method.<ref name=pmid29771297>{{cite journal | last=Devi | first=Sarita | last2=Varkey | first2=Aneesia | last3=Sheshshayee | first3=M S | last4=Preston | first4=Thomas | last5=Kurpad | first5=Anura V | title=Measurement of protein digestibility in humans by a dual-tracer method | journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume=107 | issue=6 | pages=984–991 | date=2017-11-01 | pmid=29771297 | pmc=6179135 | doi=10.1093/ajcn/nqy062 }}</ref>
Due to the difficulties of measuring amino acid digestion through the ileum, a minimally invasive dual-tracer method has been developed for the DIAAS method.<ref name=pmid29771297>{{cite journal | last1=Devi | first1=Sarita | last2=Varkey | first2=Aneesia | last3=Sheshshayee | first3=M S | last4=Preston | first4=Thomas | last5=Kurpad | first5=Anura V | title=Measurement of protein digestibility in humans by a dual-tracer method | journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume=107 | issue=6 | pages=984–991 | date=2017-11-01 | pmid=29771297 | pmc=6179135 | doi=10.1093/ajcn/nqy062 }}</ref>


==Protein sources==
==Protein sources==
Line 19: Line 20:
| [[Whey protein|Whey]] || 3.2<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 92%<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 104<ref name=pmid24482589/> || || {{abbr|8–10|Whey Isolate}} g/h<ref name=pmid16779921/> || || 1.0<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|0.973|Whey Protein Concentrate}}–{{abbr|1.09|Whey Protein Isolate}}<ref name=pmid27708684/><ref name=pmid25644361>{{cite journal |doi=10.3945/jn.114.195438 |pmid=25644361 |title=Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Scores and Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Scores Differentially Describe Protein Quality in Growing Male Rats |journal=Journal of Nutrition |volume=145 |issue=2 |pages=372–9 |year=2014 |last1=Rutherfurd |first1=S. M |last2=Fanning |first2=A. C |last3=Miller |first3=B. J |last4=Moughan |first4=P. J |doi-access=free }}</ref> || [[Histidine]]<ref name=pmid28382889/> || Yes
| [[Whey protein|Whey]] || 3.2<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 92%<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 104<ref name=pmid24482589/> || || {{abbr|8–10|Whey Isolate}} g/h<ref name=pmid16779921/> || || 1.0<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|0.973|Whey Protein Concentrate}}–{{abbr|1.09|Whey Protein Isolate}}<ref name=pmid27708684/><ref name=pmid25644361>{{cite journal |doi=10.3945/jn.114.195438 |pmid=25644361 |title=Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Scores and Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Scores Differentially Describe Protein Quality in Growing Male Rats |journal=Journal of Nutrition |volume=145 |issue=2 |pages=372–9 |year=2014 |last1=Rutherfurd |first1=S. M |last2=Fanning |first2=A. C |last3=Miller |first3=B. J |last4=Moughan |first4=P. J |doi-access=free }}</ref> || [[Histidine]]<ref name=pmid28382889/> || Yes
|-
|-
| [[Casein]] || 2.5<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 76%<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 77<ref name=pmid24482589>{{cite journal |pmid=24482589 |pmc=3905294 |year=2004 |last1=Hoffman |first1=J. R |title=Protein - Which is Best? |journal=Journal of Sports Science & Medicine |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=118–30 |last2=Falvo |first2=M. J }}</ref> || {{abbr|97.6%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=pmid20977230/> || {{abbr|6.1|Casein Isolate}} g/h<ref name=pmid16779921/> || 1.19<ref name=pmid3327245>{{cite journal | last=Sarwar | first=G | title=Digestibility of protein and bioavailability of amino acids in foods. Effects on protein quality assessment. | journal=World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics | volume=54 | year=1987 | issn=0084-2230 | pmid=3327245 | pages=26–70| doi=10.1159/000415302 }}</ref> || 1.0<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 0.93<ref name=pmid29799474>{{cite journal | last=Nosworthy | first=MG | title=Effect of Processing on the In Vitro and In Vivo Protein Quality of Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris and Vicia Faba). | journal=Nutrients | volume=10 | issue=6 | date=2018-05-25 | pmid=29799474 | pmc=6024599 | pages=671 | doi=10.3390/nu10060671 }}</ref> || None || Yes
| [[Casein]] || 2.5<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{Abbr|71.2%|Casein isolate, NPPU}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Guillin |first1=Florence M |last2=Gaudichon |first2=Claire |last3=Guérin-Deremaux |first3=Laetitia |last4=Lefranc-Millot |first4=Catherine |last5=Airinei |first5=Gheorghe |last6=Khodorova |first6=Nadezda |last7=Benamouzig |first7=Robert |last8=Pomport |first8=Pierre-Henri |last9=Martin |first9=Juliette |last10=Calvez |first10=Juliane |date=2022-02-01 |title=Real ileal amino acid digestibility of pea protein compared to casein in healthy humans: a randomized trial |url=https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-03593965/document |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |language=en |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=353–363 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/nqab354 |pmid=34665230 |issn=0002-9165|doi-access=free }}</ref>|| 77<ref name=pmid24482589>{{cite journal |pmid=24482589 |pmc=3905294 |year=2004 |last1=Hoffman |first1=J. R |title=Protein - Which is Best? |journal=Journal of Sports Science & Medicine |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=118–30 |last2=Falvo |first2=M. J }}</ref> || {{Abbr|94.0%|Casein isolate, real ileal nitrogen digestibility}}<ref name=":0" />|| {{abbr|6.1|Casein Isolate}} g/h<ref name=pmid16779921/> || 1.19<ref name=pmid3327245>{{cite journal | last=Sarwar | first=G | title=Digestibility of protein and bioavailability of amino acids in foods. Effects on protein quality assessment. | journal=World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics | volume=54 | year=1987 | issn=0084-2230 | pmid=3327245 | pages=26–70| doi=10.1159/000415302 }}</ref> || 1.0<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{Abbr|1.45|Casein isolate}}<ref name=":0" />|| None || Yes
|-
|-
| [[Egg (food)|Egg]] || 3.9<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 94%<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 100<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|97–98%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=pmid29304010/> || {{abbr|1.3|Raw egg white}}–{{abbr|2.8|Cooked egg protein}} g/h<ref name=pmid16779921>{{cite journal |doi=10.1123/ijsnem.16.2.129 |pmid=16779921 |title=A Review of Issues of Dietary Protein Intake in Humans |journal=International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=129–52 |year=2006 |last1=Bilsborough |first1=Shane |last2=Mann |first2=Neil }}</ref> || 1.19<ref name=pmid3327245/> || 1.0<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 1.13<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Phillips|first=Stuart M.|title=Current Concepts and Unresolved Questions in Dietary Protein Requirements and Supplements in Adults|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2017.00013/full|journal=Frontiers in Nutrition|pages=3}}</ref>|| None || Yes
| [[Egg (food)|Egg]] || 3.9<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 94%<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 100<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|97–98%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=pmid29304010/> || {{abbr|1.3|Raw egg white}}–{{abbr|2.8|Cooked egg protein}} g/h<ref name=pmid16779921>{{cite journal |doi=10.1123/ijsnem.16.2.129 |pmid=16779921 |title=A Review of Issues of Dietary Protein Intake in Humans |journal=International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=129–52 |year=2006 |last1=Bilsborough |first1=Shane |last2=Mann |first2=Neil |doi-access=free }}</ref> || 1.19<ref name=pmid3327245/> || 1.0<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 1.13<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Phillips|first=Stuart M.|title=Current Concepts and Unresolved Questions in Dietary Protein Requirements and Supplements in Adults|journal=Frontiers in Nutrition|year=2017|volume=4|pages=3|doi=10.3389/fnut.2017.00013|pmid=28534027|pmc=5420553|doi-access=free}}</ref>|| None || Yes
|-
|-
| [[Beef]] || 2.9<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 73%<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 80<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|94–98%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=pmid29304010/> || || 0.94<ref name=pmid3327245/> || 0.92<ref name=pmid24482589/> || || [[Tryptophan]] || No
| [[Beef]] || 2.9<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 73%<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 80<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|94–98%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=pmid29304010/> || || 0.94<ref name=pmid3327245/> || 0.92<ref name=pmid24482589/> || || [[Tryptophan]] || Yes
|-
|-
| [[Oat]] || || || || {{abbr|72|Fecal digestibility values for oats}},<ref name=pmid18330140/> {{abbr|91%|Fecal digestibility values for rolled oats}}<ref name=pmid3327245/> || || {{abbr|0.63|Rolled oats}}<ref name=pmid3327245/> || 0.57<ref name=pmid20977230/> || || [[Lysine]] || No
| [[Oat]] || || || || {{abbr|72|Fecal digestibility values for oats}},<ref name=pmid18330140/> {{abbr|91%|Fecal digestibility values for rolled oats}}<ref name=pmid3327245/> || || {{abbr|0.63|Rolled oats}}<ref name=pmid3327245/> || 0.57<ref name=pmid20977230/> || || [[Lysine]] || No
|-
|-
| [[Wheat protein|Wheat]] || {{abbr|0.8|Wheat gluten}}<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|67%|Wheat gluten}}<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|64|Wheat gluten}}<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|96–99%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=pmid29304010/> || || 0.26,<ref name=pmid29304010/> {{abbr|0.44|Whole wheat}}<ref name=pmid3327245/> || {{abbr|0.25|Wheat gluten}}–0.51<ref name=pmid24482589/><ref name=pmid28382889>{{cite journal | last=Mathai | first=John K. | last2=Liu | first2=Yanhong | last3=Stein | first3=Hans H. | title=Values for digestible indispensable amino acid scores (DIAAS) for some dairy and plant proteins may better describe protein quality than values calculated using the concept for protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores (PDCAAS) | journal=The British Journal of Nutrition | publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) | volume=117 | issue=4 | date=2017-02-28 | issn=0007-1145 | pmid=28382889 | doi=10.1017/s0007114517000125 | pages=490–499 | url=https://nutrition.ansci.illinois.edu/sites/default/files/BritJNutr117.490-499.pdf| doi-access=free }}</ref> || 0.45<ref name=pmid28382889/> || Lysine<ref name=pmid28382889/> || No
| [[Wheat protein|Wheat]] || {{abbr|0.8|Wheat gluten}}<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|67%|Wheat gluten}}<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|64|Wheat gluten}}<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|96–99%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=pmid29304010/> || || 0.26,<ref name=pmid29304010/> {{abbr|0.44|Whole wheat}}<ref name=pmid3327245/> || {{abbr|0.25|Wheat gluten}}–0.51<ref name=pmid24482589/><ref name=pmid28382889>{{cite journal | last1=Mathai | first1=John K. | last2=Liu | first2=Yanhong | last3=Stein | first3=Hans H. | title=Values for digestible indispensable amino acid scores (DIAAS) for some dairy and plant proteins may better describe protein quality than values calculated using the concept for protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores (PDCAAS) | journal=The British Journal of Nutrition | publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) | volume=117 | issue=4 | date=2017-02-28 | issn=0007-1145 | pmid=28382889 | doi=10.1017/s0007114517000125 | pages=490–499 | url=https://nutrition.ansci.illinois.edu/sites/default/files/BritJNutr117.490-499.pdf| doi-access=free }}</ref> || 0.45<ref name=pmid28382889/> || Lysine<ref name=pmid28382889/> || No
|-
|-
| [[Maize]] || 1.23<ref name=pmid23544470/> || || || {{abbr|85%|Fecal digestibility values for maize}},<ref name=pmid18330140/> {{abbr|89%|Fecal digestibility values for maize}}<ref name=Zarkadas1995/> || || || {{abbr|0.67|Quality Protein Maize}}<ref name=Zarkadas1995>{{cite journal | last=Zarkadas | first=Constantinos G. | last2=Yu | first2=Ziran | last3=Hamilton | first3=Robert I. | last4=Pattison | first4=Peter L. | last5=Rose | first5=Nicholas G. W. | title=Comparison between the Protein Quality of Northern Adapted Cultivars of Common Maize and Quality Protein Maize | journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | publisher=American Chemical Society (ACS) | volume=43 | issue=1 | year=1995 | issn=0021-8561 | doi=10.1021/jf00049a016 | pages=84–93}}</ref> || || Lysine<ref name=Zarkadas1995/> || No
| [[Maize]] || 1.23<ref name=pmid23544470/> || || || {{abbr|85%|Fecal digestibility values for maize}},<ref name=pmid18330140/> {{abbr|89%|Fecal digestibility values for maize}}<ref name=Zarkadas1995/> || || || {{abbr|0.67|Quality Protein Maize}}<ref name=Zarkadas1995>{{cite journal | last1=Zarkadas | first1=Constantinos G. | last2=Yu | first2=Ziran | last3=Hamilton | first3=Robert I. | last4=Pattison | first4=Peter L. | last5=Rose | first5=Nicholas G. W. | title=Comparison between the Protein Quality of Northern Adapted Cultivars of Common Maize and Quality Protein Maize | journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | publisher=American Chemical Society (ACS) | volume=43 | issue=1 | year=1995 | issn=0021-8561 | doi=10.1021/jf00049a016 | pages=84–93}}</ref> || || Lysine<ref name=Zarkadas1995/> || No
|-
|-
| [[Rice protein|Rice]] || 2.2<ref name=pmid23544470/> || || || || || || {{abbr|0.42|Rice protein concentrate}}<ref name=pmid27708684/> || {{abbr|0.37|Rice Protein Concentrate}}<ref name=pmid27708684/> || Lysine || No
| [[Rice protein|Rice]] || 2.2<ref name=pmid23544470/> || || || || || || {{abbr|0.42|Rice protein concentrate}}<ref name=pmid27708684/> || {{abbr|0.37|Rice Protein Concentrate}}<ref name=pmid27708684/> || Lysine || No
|-
|-
| [[Quinoa]] || || 75.7%<ref name=pmid1546052>{{cite journal | last=Ruales | first=J | last2=Nair | first2=BM | title=Nutritional quality of the protein in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa, Willd) seeds. | journal=Plant Foods for Human Nutrition | volume=42 | issue=1 | year=1992 | issn=0921-9668 | pmid=1546052 | pages=1–11| doi=10.1007/BF02196067 }}</ref> || 82.6<ref name=pmid1546052/> || {{abbr|91.7%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=pmid1546052/> || || || 0.667<ref name=pmid11939108>{{cite journal | last=Ruales | first=J | last2=de Grijalva | first2=Y | last3=Lopez-Jaramillo | first3=P | last4=Nair | first4=BM | title=The nutritional quality of an infant food from quinoa and its effect on the plasma level of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in undernourished children. | journal=International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition | volume=53 | issue=2 | year=2002 | issn=0963-7486 | pmid=11939108 | pages=143–54| doi=10.1080/09637480220132157 }}</ref> || || None || Yes
| [[Quinoa]] || || 75.7%<ref name=pmid1546052>{{cite journal | last1=Ruales | first1=J | last2=Nair | first2=BM | title=Nutritional quality of the protein in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa, Willd) seeds. | journal=Plant Foods for Human Nutrition | volume=42 | issue=1 | year=1992 | issn=0921-9668 | pmid=1546052 | pages=1–11| doi=10.1007/BF02196067 | s2cid=1219019 }}</ref> || 82.6<ref name=pmid1546052/> || {{abbr|91.7%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=pmid1546052/> || || 0.97<ref>{{Cite web |title=Quinoa, cooked – Protein Quality |url=https://www.proteinquality.org/cereal-grains-and-pasta/quinoa-cooked/ |access-date=2022-11-24 |language=en}}</ref>|| 0.667<ref name=pmid11939108>{{cite journal | last1=Ruales | first1=J | last2=de Grijalva | first2=Y | last3=Lopez-Jaramillo | first3=P | last4=Nair | first4=BM | title=The nutritional quality of an infant food from quinoa and its effect on the plasma level of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in undernourished children. | journal=International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition | volume=53 | issue=2 | year=2002 | issn=0963-7486 | pmid=11939108 | pages=143–54| doi=10.1080/09637480220132157 | s2cid=12001819 }}</ref> || || None || Yes
|-
|-
| [[Soy protein|Soy]] || 2.2<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 61%<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 74<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|95–98%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=pmid29304010>{{cite journal | last=Rizzo | first=Gianluca | last2=Baroni | first2=Luciana | title=Soy, Soy Foods and Their Role in Vegetarian Diets | journal=Nutrients | volume=10 | issue=1 | pages=43 | pmid=29304010 | pmc=5793271 | doi=10.3390/nu10010043 | year=2018 }}</ref> || {{abbr|3.9|Soy Protein Isolate}} g/h<ref name=pmid16779921/> || || {{abbr|0.91|Soybeans}}–{{abbr|1.0|Soy Protein Isolate}}<ref name=pmid25644361/><ref name=pmid24482589/><ref name=pmid27708684/> || {{abbr|0.90–0.91|Soy Protein Isolate}}<ref name=pmid27708684/> || [[Methionine|Meth]]+[[Cysteine|Cyst]]<ref name=pmid28382889/> || Yes<ref name=pmid25644361/><ref name=pmid24482589/><ref name=pmid27708684/>
| [[Soy protein|Soy]] || 2.2<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 61%<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 74<ref name=pmid24482589/> || {{abbr|95–98%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=pmid29304010>{{cite journal | last1=Rizzo | first1=Gianluca | last2=Baroni | first2=Luciana | title=Soy, Soy Foods and Their Role in Vegetarian Diets | journal=Nutrients | volume=10 | issue=1 | pages=43 | pmid=29304010 | pmc=5793271 | doi=10.3390/nu10010043 | year=2018 | doi-access=free }}</ref> || {{abbr|3.9|Soy Protein Isolate}} g/h<ref name=pmid16779921/> || || {{abbr|0.91|Soybeans}}–{{abbr|1.0|Soy Protein Isolate}}<ref name=pmid25644361/><ref name=pmid24482589/><ref name=pmid27708684/> || {{abbr|0.90–0.91|Soy Protein Isolate}}<ref name=pmid27708684/> || [[Methionine|Meth]]+[[Cysteine|Cyst]]<ref name=pmid28382889/> || Yes<ref name=pmid25644361/><ref name=pmid24482589/><ref name=pmid27708684/>
|-
|-
| [[Black turtle bean|Black bean]] || || || || || || || 0.75<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 0.53-0.65<ref name=pmid29799474/> || Meth+Cyst || No
| [[Black turtle bean|Black bean]] || || || || || || || 0.75<ref name=pmid24482589/> || 0.53-0.65<ref name="pmid29799474">{{cite journal |last=Nosworthy |first=MG |date=2018-05-25 |title=Effect of Processing on the In Vitro and In Vivo Protein Quality of Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris and Vicia Faba). |journal=Nutrients |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=671 |doi=10.3390/nu10060671 |pmc=6024599 |pmid=29799474 |doi-access=free}}</ref>|| Meth+Cyst || No
|-
|-
| [[Pea protein|Pea]] || || || || {{abbr|88%|Fecal digestibility values for pea flour}}<ref name=pmid3327245/><ref name=pmid18330140/> || || || 0.89<ref name=pmid27708684/> || 0.82<ref name=pmid27708684/> || Meth+Cyst || Yes
| [[Pea protein|Pea]] || || || || {{abbr|88%|Fecal digestibility values for pea flour}}<ref name=pmid3327245/><ref name=pmid18330140/> || || || 0.89<ref name=pmid27708684/> || 0.82<ref name=pmid27708684/> || Meth+Cyst || Yes
|-
|-
| [[Peanut]] || 1.8<ref name=pmid24482589/> || || || {{abbr|94|Fecal digestibility values for peanuts}}<ref name=pmid18330140>{{cite journal | last=Consultation | first=Joint WHO/FAO/UNU Expert | title=Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition. | issue=935 | pages=1–265, back cover | journal=World Health Organization Technical Report Series | date=2019-06-07 | url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43411/WHO_TRS_935_eng.pdf?sequence=1 | pmid=18330140 | access-date=2019-06-07}}</ref> || || || 0.52<ref name=pmid24482589/> || || Lysine || No
| [[Peanut]] || 1.8<ref name=pmid24482589/> || || || {{abbr|94|Fecal digestibility values for peanuts}}<ref name=pmid18330140>{{cite journal | last=Consultation | first=Joint WHO/FAO/UNU Expert | title=Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition. | issue=935 | pages=1–265, back cover | journal=World Health Organization Technical Report Series | date=2019-06-07 | url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43411/WHO_TRS_935_eng.pdf?sequence=1 | pmid=18330140 | access-date=2019-06-07}}</ref> || || 0.75<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peanuts, all types, cooked, boiled, with salt – Protein Quality |url=https://www.proteinquality.org/legumes-and-legume-products/peanuts-all-types-cooked-boiled-with-salt/ |access-date=2022-11-24 |language=en}}</ref>|| 0.52<ref name=pmid24482589/> || || Lysine || No
|-
|-
| [[Hemp protein|Hemp]] || || || 87 || {{abbr|94.9%|Fecal digestibility for hemp nuts}}<ref name=pmid20977230/> || || {{abbr|0.64|Shelled hemp seed}}<ref name=pmid20977230/> || {{abbr|0.61|Shelled hemp seed}}<ref name=pmid20977230>{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/jf102636b |pmid=20977230 |title=Evaluating the Quality of Protein from Hemp Seed (Cannabis sativa L.) Products Through the use of the Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Score Method |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=58 |issue=22 |pages=11801–7 |year=2010 |last1=House |first1=James D |last2=Neufeld |first2=Jason |last3=Leson |first3=Gero }}</ref> || || Lysine<ref name=pmid20977230/> || No
| [[Hemp protein|Hemp]] || || || 87 || {{abbr|94.9%|Fecal digestibility for hemp nuts}}<ref name=pmid20977230/> || || {{abbr|0.64|Shelled hemp seed}}<ref name=pmid20977230/> || {{abbr|0.61|Shelled hemp seed}}<ref name=pmid20977230>{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/jf102636b |pmid=20977230 |title=Evaluating the Quality of Protein from Hemp Seed (Cannabis sativa L.) Products Through the use of the Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Score Method |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=58 |issue=22 |pages=11801–7 |year=2010 |last1=House |first1=James D |last2=Neufeld |first2=Jason |last3=Leson |first3=Gero }}</ref> || || Lysine<ref name=pmid20977230/> || No
Line 47: Line 48:
| [[Mycoprotein]] || || || || {{abbr|86%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=S0029665110001400/> || || || 0.996<ref name=S0029665110001400>{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0029665110001400 |title=The protein quality of mycoprotein |journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society |volume=69 |year=2010 |last1=Edwards |first1=D. G |last2=Cummings |first2=J. H |doi-access=free }}</ref> || || Meth+Cyst || No
| [[Mycoprotein]] || || || || {{abbr|86%|Fecal digestibility}}<ref name=S0029665110001400/> || || || 0.996<ref name=S0029665110001400>{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0029665110001400 |title=The protein quality of mycoprotein |journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society |volume=69 |year=2010 |last1=Edwards |first1=D. G |last2=Cummings |first2=J. H |doi-access=free }}</ref> || || Meth+Cyst || No
|-
|-
| [[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|Spirulina]] || 1.8-2.6<ref name=pmid23544470>{{cite journal |doi=10.2174/1389557511313080009 |pmid=23544470 |title=Nutritional and Medical Applications of Spirulina Microalgae |journal=Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=1231–7 |year=2013 |last1=Hoseini |first1=S.M |last2=Khosravi-Darani |first2=K |last3=Mozafari |first3=M.R }}</ref> || 53–92%<ref name=pmid23544470/> || 68<ref name=pmid6806536>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/jsfa.2740330511 |pmid=6806536 |title=Nutritional quality of the blue-green alga ''Spirulina'' platensis geitler |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=456–60 |year=1982 |last1=Narasimha |first1=D. L. R |last2=Venkataraman |first2=G. S |last3=Duggal |first3=Surinder K |last4=Eggum |first4=Bjorn O }}</ref> || 83–90% || || || || || Lysine || Yes
| [[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|Spirulina]] || 1.8-2.6<ref name=pmid23544470>{{cite journal |doi=10.2174/1389557511313080009 |pmid=23544470 |title=Nutritional and Medical Applications of Spirulina Microalgae |journal=Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=1231–7 |year=2013 |last1=Hoseini |first1=S.M |last2=Khosravi-Darani |first2=K |last3=Mozafari |first3=M.R }}</ref> || 53–92%<ref name=pmid23544470/> || 68<ref name=pmid6806536>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/jsfa.2740330511 |pmid=6806536 |title=Nutritional quality of the blue-green alga ''Spirulina'' platensis geitler |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=456–60 |year=1982 |last1=Narasimha |first1=D. L. R |last2=Venkataraman |first2=G. S |last3=Duggal |first3=Surinder K |last4=Eggum |first4=Bjorn O }}</ref> || 83–90% || || 1.10<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seaweed, spirulina, dried – Protein Quality |url=https://www.proteinquality.org/vegetables-and-vegetable-products/seaweed-spirulina-dried/ |access-date=2022-11-24 |language=en}}</ref>|| || || Lysine || Yes
|-
|-
| [[Chlorella]] || || || || || || || || || Meth+Cyst || No
| [[Chlorella]] || || || || || || || || || Meth+Cyst || No
Line 55: Line 56:
==Amino acid profile==
==Amino acid profile==
{{see further|Protein combining}}
{{see further|Protein combining}}
The amino acid score is based on the prevalence of the essential amino acids and depends on if they reach sufficient quantity. PDCAAS scores do not take into account the quantity of the non-essential amino acids. Despite the insufficient essential amino acid profiles of most plant-based proteins, it is possible to [[protein combining|combine]] low lysine with low methionine plant-based proteins, which would yield a more complete protein.<ref name="Gorissen Crombag Senden Waterval p. ">{{cite journal | last=Gorissen | first=Stefan H. M. | last2=Crombag | first2=Julie J. R. | last3=Senden | first3=Joan M. G. | last4=Waterval | first4=W. A. Huub | last5=Bierau | first5=Jörgen | last6=Verdijk | first6=Lex B. | last7=Loon | first7=Luc J. C. van | title=Protein content and amino acid composition of commercially available plant-based protein isolates | journal=Amino Acids | volume=50 | issue=12 | pages=1685–1695 | pmid=30167963 | pmc=6245118 | doi=10.1007/s00726-018-2640-5 | year=2018 }}</ref><ref name=pmid24482589/>
The amino acid score is based on the prevalence of the essential amino acids and depends on if they reach sufficient quantity. PDCAAS scores do not take into account the quantity of the non-essential amino acids. Despite the insufficient essential amino acid profiles of most plant-based proteins, it is possible to [[protein combining|combine]] low lysine with low methionine plant-based proteins, which would yield a more complete protein.<ref name="Gorissen Crombag Senden Waterval p. ">{{cite journal | last1=Gorissen | first1=Stefan H. M. | last2=Crombag | first2=Julie J. R. | last3=Senden | first3=Joan M. G. | last4=Waterval | first4=W. A. Huub | last5=Bierau | first5=Jörgen | last6=Verdijk | first6=Lex B. | last7=Loon | first7=Luc J. C. van | title=Protein content and amino acid composition of commercially available plant-based protein isolates | journal=Amino Acids | volume=50 | issue=12 | pages=1685–1695 | pmid=30167963 | pmc=6245118 | doi=10.1007/s00726-018-2640-5 | year=2018 }}</ref><ref name=pmid24482589/>


Below follows a table that compares the complete amino acid profiles of various proteins.
Below follows a table that compares the complete amino acid profiles of various proteins.


{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="width:100%; background:none;"
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="width:100%;"
|-
|-
|valign="top"|
|valign="top"|
Line 71: Line 72:
|+Amino acid profiles and requirements
|+Amino acid profiles and requirements


!| <small>Essential Amino Acids</small> || <small>Required<br>per 100 [[gram|g]]<br>of protein [[Dietary Reference Intake|DRI]]<ref name=pmid12449285/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umich.edu/~exphysio/mvs.241/RI.macronutrients.pdf|title=Dietary Reference Intakes: Macronutrients|website=Umich.edu|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/help/analysis-help#protein-quality|title=Nutrition Facts Help|website=Nutritiondata.self.com|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10490/chapter/12#687|title=10 Proteins and Amino Acids|website=Nap.edu|access-date=3 November 2018}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Breast milk|Human breast milk]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/96?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&qlookup=human&offset=&sort=&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=101.3&Q300=1&Q301=1&Qv=101.2&Q300=1&Q301=1|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Milk, human, mature, fluid|website=Ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small>
!| <small>Essential Amino Acids</small> || <small>Required<br>per 100 [[gram|g]]<br>of protein [[Dietary Reference Intake|DRI]]<ref name=pmid12449285/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umich.edu/~exphysio/mvs.241/RI.macronutrients.pdf|title=Dietary Reference Intakes: Macronutrients|website=Umich.edu|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/help/analysis-help#protein-quality|title=Nutrition Facts Help|website=Nutritiondata.self.com|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10490/chapter/12#687|title=10 Proteins and Amino Acids|website=Nap.edu|year=2005|doi=10.17226/10490|isbn=978-0-309-08525-0|access-date=3 November 2018}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Breast milk|Human breast milk]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/96?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&qlookup=human&offset=&sort=&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=101.3&Q300=1&Q301=1&Qv=101.2&Q300=1&Q301=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029173827/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/96?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&qlookup=human&offset=&sort=&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=101.3&Q300=1&Q301=1&Qv=101.2&Q300=1&Q301=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 29, 2017|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Milk, human, mature, fluid|website=Ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small>
!<small>[[Quinoa]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6504?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=50&qlookup=quinoa&offset=&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=8.49&Q334030=1&Qv=8.5&Q334030=11|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Full Report (All Nutrients): 20035, Quinoa, uncooked|website=ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=2019-05-26}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Corn]]<ref>{{cite web | title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Corn, sweet, yellow, raw | website=USDA Food Composition Databases | url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/11167?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=25&qlookup=corn+yellow&offset=&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=30.45&Q327513=1&Q327514=1&Q327515=1&Q327516=1&Qv=1&Q327513=1&Q327514=1&Q327515=1&Q327516=1 | access-date=2019-06-07}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Oat]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/20038?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=25&qlookup=afi%3A%28++oats+%29&offset=0&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=5.961&Q334033=1&Qv=596.1&Q334033=1|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Oats (Includes foods for USDA's Food Distribution Program)|website=ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=2019-03-09}}</ref></small>||<small>[[Hemp#Nutrition|Hemp<br>seeds<br>(shelled)]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/12012?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=25&qlookup=hemp&offset=&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=2.911&Q328752=3.0&Qv=2.901&Q328752=3.0|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Seeds, hemp seed, hulled|website=Ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Green peas]]<ref name="USDA Food Composition Databases">{{cite web | title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Peas, green, raw | website=USDA Food Composition Databases | url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/11304?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=25&qlookup=green+pea&offset=&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=23.32&Q327779=1&Qv=1&Q327779=1 | access-date=2019-05-27}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Soybeans]] ([[Edamame]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3162?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=50&qlookup=11450&offset=&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=7.92&Q5983=1&Qv=1&Q5983=1|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Soybeans, green, raw|website=Ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|Spirulina]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3306?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&qlookup=spirulina&offset=&sort=&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&_action_show=Apply+Changes&Qv=1.74&Q6228=1&Q6229=1|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Seaweed, spirulina, dried|website=Ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Chlorella]]<ref name=pmid14915957>{{cite journal |doi=10.1042/bj0500355 |pmid=14915957 |pmc=1197660 |title=The composition of the bulk proteins of ''Chlorella'' |journal=Biochemical Journal |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=355–8 |year=1952 |last1=Fowden |first1=L }}</ref></small> || <small>[[Whey]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/101?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&qlookup=whey&offset=&sort=&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&_action_show=Apply+Changes&Qv=131.6&Q310=1&Q311=1|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Whey, acid, fluid|website=Ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Casein]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/u5900t/u5900t07.htm|title=Recent developments in protein quality evaluation|website=Fao.org|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Egg white]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/113?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&qlookup=egg+white&offset=&sort=&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&_action_show=Apply+Changes&Qv=9.174&Q352=1&Q353=1|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Egg, white, raw, fresh|website=Ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small>
!<small>[[Quinoa]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6504?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=50&qlookup=quinoa&offset=&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=8.49&Q334030=1&Qv=8.5&Q334030=11|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Full Report (All Nutrients): 20035, Quinoa, uncooked|website=ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=2019-05-26}}{{dead link|date=October 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Corn]]<ref>{{cite web | title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Corn, sweet, yellow, raw | website=USDA Food Composition Databases | url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/11167?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=25&qlookup=corn+yellow&offset=&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=30.45&Q327513=1&Q327514=1&Q327515=1&Q327516=1&Qv=1&Q327513=1&Q327514=1&Q327515=1&Q327516=1 | access-date=2019-06-07}}{{dead link|date=October 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Oat]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/20038?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=25&qlookup=afi%3A%28++oats+%29&offset=0&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=5.961&Q334033=1&Qv=596.1&Q334033=1|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Oats (Includes foods for USDA's Food Distribution Program)|website=ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=2019-03-09}}{{dead link|date=October 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref></small>||<small>[[Hemp#Nutrition|Hemp<br>seeds<br>(shelled)]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/12012?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=25&qlookup=hemp&offset=&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=2.911&Q328752=3.0&Qv=2.901&Q328752=3.0|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621170910/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/12012?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=25&qlookup=hemp&offset=&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=2.911&Q328752=3.0&Qv=2.901&Q328752=3.0|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 21, 2018|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Seeds, hemp seed, hulled|website=Ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Green peas]]<ref name="USDA Food Composition Databases">{{cite web | title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Peas, green, raw | website=USDA Food Composition Databases | url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/11304?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=25&qlookup=green+pea&offset=&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=23.32&Q327779=1&Qv=1&Q327779=1 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621170716/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/11304?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=25&qlookup=green+pea&offset=&sort=default&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&Qv=23.32&Q327779=1&Qv=1&Q327779=1 | url-status=dead | archive-date=June 21, 2018 | access-date=2019-05-27}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Soybeans]] ([[Edamame]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169282/nutrients|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Soybeans, green, raw|website=Ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|Spirulina]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3306?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&qlookup=spirulina&offset=&sort=&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&_action_show=Apply+Changes&Qv=1.74&Q6228=1&Q6229=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604163131/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3306?man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&qlookup=spirulina&offset=&sort=&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&_action_show=Apply+Changes&Qv=1.74&Q6228=1&Q6229=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 4, 2016|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Seaweed, spirulina, dried|website=Ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Chlorella]]<ref name=pmid14915957>{{cite journal |doi=10.1042/bj0500355 |pmid=14915957 |pmc=1197660 |title=The composition of the bulk proteins of ''Chlorella'' |journal=Biochemical Journal |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=355–8 |year=1952 |last1=Fowden |first1=L }}</ref></small> || <small>[[Whey]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/101?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&qlookup=whey&offset=&sort=&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&_action_show=Apply+Changes&Qv=131.6&Q310=1&Q311=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625155732/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/101?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&qlookup=whey&offset=&sort=&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&_action_show=Apply+Changes&Qv=131.6&Q310=1&Q311=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 25, 2016|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Whey, acid, fluid|website=Ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Casein]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/u5900t/u5900t07.htm|title=Recent developments in protein quality evaluation|website=Fao.org|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small> || <small>[[Egg white]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/113?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&qlookup=egg+white&offset=&sort=&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&_action_show=Apply+Changes&Qv=9.174&Q352=1&Q353=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604160716/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/113?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&qlookup=egg+white&offset=&sort=&format=Full&reportfmt=other&rptfrm=&ndbno=&nutrient1=&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&subset=&totCount=&measureby=&_action_show=Apply+Changes&Qv=9.174&Q352=1&Q353=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 4, 2016|title=Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Egg, white, raw, fresh|website=Ndb.nal.usda.gov|access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref></small>
|-
|-
| [[Histidine]] || 1.8 g || 2.230 g || 3.455 g
| [[Histidine]] || 1.8 g || 2.230 g || 3.455 g
Line 159: Line 160:


==Different essential amino acid requirements based on age==
==Different essential amino acid requirements based on age==
While the [[Amino acid score|amino acid scores]] for PDCAAS and DIAAS are based on toddler requirements (1–3 year olds),<ref name=pmid12449285>{{cite journal |pmid=12449285 |year=2003 |author1=Trumbo, Paula |title=Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein and amino acids. |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume= 102|issue= 11|pages= 1621–30|url=https://www.nal.usda.gov/sites/default/files/fnic_uploads/energy_full_report.pdf |doi= 10.1016/S0002-8223(02)90346-9}}</ref> the essential amino acid requirements differ for adults and infants.<ref name=pmid12449285/> The most demanding essential amino acid requirements are for infants, and as children get older and transition into adulthood, the less proportions of essential amino acids they will need. This also means that many of the vegan protein sources that are limited in one or more essential amino acids, are actually less deficient in essential amino acids for adults, perhaps not deficient at all. The essential amino acid requirements for infants is based on the essential amino acid proportions in human breast milk.<ref name=pmid12449285/>
While the [[Amino acid score|amino acid scores]] for PDCAAS and DIAAS are based on toddler requirements (1–3 year olds),<ref name=pmid12449285>{{cite journal |pmid=12449285 |year=2003 |author1=Trumbo, Paula |title=Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein and amino acids. |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=102 |issue=11 |pages=1621–30 |url=https://www.nal.usda.gov/sites/default/files/fnic_uploads/energy_full_report.pdf |doi=10.1016/S0002-8223(02)90346-9 |access-date=2019-06-14 |archive-date=2022-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307150635/https://www.nal.usda.gov/sites/default/files/fnic_uploads//energy_full_report.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> the essential amino acid requirements differ for adults and infants.<ref name=pmid12449285/> The most demanding essential amino acid requirements are for infants, and as children get older and transition into adulthood, the less proportions of essential amino acids they will need. This also means that many of the vegan protein sources that are limited in one or more essential amino acids, are actually less deficient in essential amino acids for adults, perhaps not deficient at all. The essential amino acid requirements for infants is based on the essential amino acid proportions in human breast milk.<ref name=pmid12449285/>


{| class="sortable wikitable"
{| class="sortable wikitable"

Latest revision as of 01:22, 25 October 2024

Protein quality is the digestibility and quantity of essential amino acids for providing the proteins in correct ratios for human consumption. There are various methods that rank the quality of different types of protein, some of which are outdated and no longer in use, or not considered as useful as they once were thought to be. The Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS), which was recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), became the industry standard in 1993. FAO has recently recommended the newer Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) to supersede PDCAAS.

PDCAAS versus DIAAS

[edit]

The main limitations of PDCAAS is that it does not take into account anti-nutrient factors like phytic acid and trypsin inhibitors, which limit the absorption of protein among other nutrients, and its use of fecal digestibility, whereas in the DIAAS system, ileal digestibility of the essential amino acids is emphasized as a more accurate measure of protein absorption.[1][2][3] For this reason, DIAAS is promoted as the superior method and preferable over the PDCAAS.[2][4] Due to not factoring in anti-nutritional content into the digestibility equation, the PDCAAS has consequently been criticized for overestimating protein quality.[5] Other older methods like BV, PER, NPU and nitrogen balance may not reveal much about the amino acid profile and digestibility of the protein source in question, but can still be considered useful in that they determine other aspects of protein quality not taken into account by PDCAAS and DIAAS.

Due to the difficulties of measuring amino acid digestion through the ileum, a minimally invasive dual-tracer method has been developed for the DIAAS method.[6]

Protein sources

[edit]
Protein ranking methods and standards
Protein type PER NPU BV Protein
Digestibility
(PD)		 Protein
absorption
rate		 Amino
Acid
Score
(AAS)		 PDCAAS DIAAS Limiting
amino
acid		 Complete
protein?
Cow's milk 2.5[1] 82%[1] 91[1] 3.5 g/h[7] 1.0[1] None Yes
Whey 3.2[1] 92%[1] 104[1] 8–10 g/h[7] 1.0[1] 0.973–1.09[2][4] Histidine[8] Yes
Casein 2.5[1] 71.2%[9] 77[1] 94.0%[9] 6.1 g/h[7] 1.19[10] 1.0[1] 1.45[9] None Yes
Egg 3.9[1] 94%[1] 100[1] 97–98%[11] 1.3–2.8 g/h[7] 1.19[10] 1.0[1] 1.13[12] None Yes
Beef 2.9[1] 73%[1] 80[1] 94–98%[11] 0.94[10] 0.92[1] Tryptophan Yes
Oat 72,[13] 91%[10] 0.63[10] 0.57[14] Lysine No
Wheat 0.8[1] 67%[1] 64[1] 96–99%[11] 0.26,[11] 0.44[10] 0.25–0.51[1][8] 0.45[8] Lysine[8] No
Maize 1.23[15] 85%,[13] 89%[16] 0.67[16] Lysine[16] No
Rice 2.2[15] 0.42[2] 0.37[2] Lysine No
Quinoa 75.7%[17] 82.6[17] 91.7%[17] 0.97[18] 0.667[19] None Yes
Soy 2.2[1] 61%[1] 74[1] 95–98%[11] 3.9 g/h[7] 0.91–1.0[4][1][2] 0.90–0.91[2] Meth+Cyst[8] Yes[4][1][2]
Black bean 0.75[1] 0.53-0.65[20] Meth+Cyst No
Pea 88%[10][13] 0.89[2] 0.82[2] Meth+Cyst Yes
Peanut 1.8[1] 94[13] 0.75[21] 0.52[1] Lysine No
Hemp 87 94.9%[14] 0.64[14] 0.61[14] Lysine[14] No
Mycoprotein 86%[22] 0.996[22] Meth+Cyst No
Spirulina 1.8-2.6[15] 53–92%[15] 68[23] 83–90% 1.10[24] Lysine Yes
Chlorella Meth+Cyst No

Amino acid profile

[edit]
Further information: Protein combining

The amino acid score is based on the prevalence of the essential amino acids and depends on if they reach sufficient quantity. PDCAAS scores do not take into account the quantity of the non-essential amino acids. Despite the insufficient essential amino acid profiles of most plant-based proteins, it is possible to combine low lysine with low methionine plant-based proteins, which would yield a more complete protein.[25][1]

Below follows a table that compares the complete amino acid profiles of various proteins.

  First limiting amino acid
  Second limiting amino acid, especially depending on certain age requirements and demanding conditions for EAAs
  Amino acid is technically complete, but might turn out incomplete anyway after digestibility has been factored in
Amino acid profiles and requirements
Essential Amino Acids Required
per 100 g
of protein DRI[26][27][28][29]		 Human breast milk[30] Quinoa[31] Corn[32] Oat[33] Hemp
seeds
(shelled)[34]		 Green peas[35] Soybeans (Edamame)[36] Spirulina[37] Chlorella[38] Whey[39] Casein[40] Egg white[41]
Histidine 1.8 g 2.230 g 3.455 g 2.710 g 2.414 g 2.821 g 2.495 g 2.756 g 1.888 g 3.3 g 1.974 g 3.2 g 2.660 g
Isoleucine** 2.5 g 5.673 g 4.279 g 3.928 g 4.137 g 3.744 g 4.547 g 4.514 g 5.584 g 3.5 g 5.001 g 5.4 g 6.064 g
Leucine** 5.5 g 9.623 g 7.132 g 10.597 g 7.654 g 6.296 g 7.532 g 7.334 g 8.608 g 6.1 g 9.475 g 9.5 g 9.321 g
Lysine 5.1 g 6.888 g 6.503 g 4.172 g 4.179 g 3.714 g 7.392 g 6.138 g 5.264 g 10.2 g 8.554 g 8.5 g 7.394 g
Meth + Cyst 2.5 g 4.052 g 4.346 g 2.832 g 4.292 g 4.672 g 2.658 g 2.178 g 3.151 g 1.6 g 3.684 g 3.5 g 6.293 g
Phen + Tyr 4.7 g 10.029 g 7.302 g 8.132 g 8.751 g 7.889 g 7.332 g 8.316 g 9.328 g 5.6 g 5.790 g 11.1 g 10.486 g
Threonine 2.7 g 4.660 g 3.574 g 3.928 g 3.428 g 3.694 g 4.734 g 4.087 g 5.168 g 2.9 g 5.001 g 4.2 g 4.119 g
Tryptophan 0.7 g 1.722 g 1.418 g 0.700 g 1.395 g 1.074 g 0.863 g 1.243 g 1.616 g 2.1 g 2.106 g 1.4 g 1.147 g
Valine** 3.2 g 6.382 g 5.043 g 5.633 g 5.585 g 5.173 g 5.480 g 4.562 g 6.111 g 5.5 g 5.001 g 6.3 g 7.422 g
Total EAAs 28.7 g 51.259 g 43.052 g 42.632 g 46.014 g 39.077 g 43.033 g 41.128 g 46.718 g 40.8 g 46.586 g 53.1 g 54.906 g
Non-Essential Amino Acids Required? Human breast milk Quinoa Corn Oat Hemp
seeds
(shelled)		 Green peas Soybeans (Edamame) Spirulina Chlorella Whey Casein Egg white
Alanine Varies 3.647 g 4.992 g 8.983 g 5.252 g 4.448 g 5.597 g 4.609 g 7.856 g 7.7 g 4.343 g N/A 6.458 g
Arginine* 4.356 9.263 g 3.989 g 7.106 g 13.245 g 9.981 g 8.253 g 7.216 g 15.8 g 2.764 g 3.7 g 5.945 g
Asparagine* N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Aspartic acid 8.307 g 9.628 g 7.430 g 8.632 g 10.660 g 11.567 g 11.943 g 10.080 g 6.4 g 9.738 g N/A 11.192 g
Cysteine* N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Glutamic acid 17.018 g 15.834 g 19.366 g 22.127 g 18.249 g 17.280 g 19.269 g 14.592 g 7.8 g 17.898 g N/A 14.220 g
Glutamine* N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Glycine* 2.634 g 5.892 g 3.867 g 5.013 g 4.690 g 4.291 g 4.269 g 5.392 g 6.2 g 1.842 g N/A 3.789 g
Proline* 8.307 g 6.563 g 8.891 g 5.568 g 4.649 g 4.034 g 4.807 g 4.145 7.2 g 5.922 g N/A 3.991 g
Selenocysteine N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Serine* 4.356 g 4.814 g 4.659 g 4.471 g 4.987 g 4.221 g 5.710 g 5.217 3.3 g 4.606 g N/A 7.321 g
Tyrosine* 5.369 g 2.267 g 3.745 g 3.409 g 3.677 g 2.658 g 3.675 g 4.496 g 2.8 g 2.500 g N/A 4.193 g
Total non-EAAs 53.994 g 58.257 g 60.93 g 61.578 g 64.605 g 59.629 g 62.535 g 58.994 g 57.2 g 49.613 g N/A 57.109 g
22nd Amino Acid Required? Human breast milk Quinoa Corn Oat Hemp
seeds
(shelled)		 Green peas Soybeans (Edamame) Spirulina Chlorella Whey Casein Egg white
Pyrrolysine Not used
by humans		 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

*Semi-essential, under certain conditions
**Branched-chain amino acid (BCAA)

Different essential amino acid requirements based on age

[edit]

While the amino acid scores for PDCAAS and DIAAS are based on toddler requirements (1–3 year olds),[26] the essential amino acid requirements differ for adults and infants.[26] The most demanding essential amino acid requirements are for infants, and as children get older and transition into adulthood, the less proportions of essential amino acids they will need. This also means that many of the vegan protein sources that are limited in one or more essential amino acids, are actually less deficient in essential amino acids for adults, perhaps not deficient at all. The essential amino acid requirements for infants is based on the essential amino acid proportions in human breast milk.[26]

Essential amino acid requirements
Amino Acid required mg per g of protein Infants[26] 1–3 year olds[26] Adults (18+ y)[26]
Histidine 23 18 17
Isoleucine 57 25 23
Leucine 101 55 52
Lysine 69 51 47
Methionine + Cysteine 38 25 23
Phenylalanine + Tyrosine 87 47 41
Threonine 47 27 24
Tryptophan 18 7 6
Valine 56 32 29
Total mg of Essential Amino Acids per g of protein 496 287 262

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Hoffman, J. R; Falvo, M. J (2004). "Protein - Which is Best?". Journal of Sports Science & Medicine. 3 (3): 118–30. PMC 3905294. PMID 24482589.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Phillips, Stuart M. (2016). "The impact of protein quality on the promotion of resistance exercise-induced changes in muscle mass". Nutrition & Metabolism. 13: 64. doi:10.1186/s12986-016-0124-8. PMC 5041535. PMID 27708684.
  3. ^ RR, Wolfe; Al., Et (2019-05-31). "Protein quality as determined by the Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score: Evaluation of factors underlying the calculation: Table 1". Nutrition Reviews. 74 (9): 584–99. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuw022. PMC 6322793. PMID 27452871.
  4. ^ a b c d Rutherfurd, S. M; Fanning, A. C; Miller, B. J; Moughan, P. J (2014). "Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Scores and Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Scores Differentially Describe Protein Quality in Growing Male Rats". Journal of Nutrition. 145 (2): 372–9. doi:10.3945/jn.114.195438. PMID 25644361.
  5. ^ Sarwar, Ghulam (1997-05-01). "The Protein Digestibility–Corrected Amino Acid Score Method Overestimates Quality of Proteins Containing Antinutritional Factors and of Poorly Digestible Proteins Supplemented with Limiting Amino Acids in Rats". The Journal of Nutrition. 127 (5): 758–764. doi:10.1093/jn/127.5.758. ISSN 0022-3166. PMID 9164998.
  6. ^ Devi, Sarita; Varkey, Aneesia; Sheshshayee, M S; Preston, Thomas; Kurpad, Anura V (2017-11-01). "Measurement of protein digestibility in humans by a dual-tracer method". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 107 (6): 984–991. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqy062. PMC 6179135. PMID 29771297.
  7. ^ a b c d e Bilsborough, Shane; Mann, Neil (2006). "A Review of Issues of Dietary Protein Intake in Humans". International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 16 (2): 129–52. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.16.2.129. PMID 16779921.
  8. ^ a b c d e Mathai, John K.; Liu, Yanhong; Stein, Hans H. (2017-02-28). "Values for digestible indispensable amino acid scores (DIAAS) for some dairy and plant proteins may better describe protein quality than values calculated using the concept for protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores (PDCAAS)" (PDF). The British Journal of Nutrition. 117 (4). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 490–499. doi:10.1017/s0007114517000125. ISSN 0007-1145. PMID 28382889.
  9. ^ a b c Guillin, Florence M; Gaudichon, Claire; Guérin-Deremaux, Laetitia; Lefranc-Millot, Catherine; Airinei, Gheorghe; Khodorova, Nadezda; Benamouzig, Robert; Pomport, Pierre-Henri; Martin, Juliette; Calvez, Juliane (2022-02-01). "Real ileal amino acid digestibility of pea protein compared to casein in healthy humans: a randomized trial". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 115 (2): 353–363. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqab354. ISSN 0002-9165. PMID 34665230.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g Sarwar, G (1987). "Digestibility of protein and bioavailability of amino acids in foods. Effects on protein quality assessment". World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics. 54: 26–70. doi:10.1159/000415302. ISSN 0084-2230. PMID 3327245.
  11. ^ a b c d e Rizzo, Gianluca; Baroni, Luciana (2018). "Soy, Soy Foods and Their Role in Vegetarian Diets". Nutrients. 10 (1): 43. doi:10.3390/nu10010043. PMC 5793271. PMID 29304010.
  12. ^ Phillips, Stuart M. (2017). "Current Concepts and Unresolved Questions in Dietary Protein Requirements and Supplements in Adults". Frontiers in Nutrition. 4: 3. doi:10.3389/fnut.2017.00013. PMC 5420553. PMID 28534027.
  13. ^ a b c d Consultation, Joint WHO/FAO/UNU Expert (2019-06-07). "Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition" (PDF). World Health Organization Technical Report Series (935): 1–265, back cover. PMID 18330140. Retrieved 2019-06-07.
  14. ^ a b c d e House, James D; Neufeld, Jason; Leson, Gero (2010). "Evaluating the Quality of Protein from Hemp Seed (Cannabis sativa L.) Products Through the use of the Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Score Method". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 58 (22): 11801–7. doi:10.1021/jf102636b. PMID 20977230.
  15. ^ a b c d Hoseini, S.M; Khosravi-Darani, K; Mozafari, M.R (2013). "Nutritional and Medical Applications of Spirulina Microalgae". Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry. 13 (8): 1231–7. doi:10.2174/1389557511313080009. PMID 23544470.
  16. ^ a b c Zarkadas, Constantinos G.; Yu, Ziran; Hamilton, Robert I.; Pattison, Peter L.; Rose, Nicholas G. W. (1995). "Comparison between the Protein Quality of Northern Adapted Cultivars of Common Maize and Quality Protein Maize". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 43 (1). American Chemical Society (ACS): 84–93. doi:10.1021/jf00049a016. ISSN 0021-8561.
  17. ^ a b c Ruales, J; Nair, BM (1992). "Nutritional quality of the protein in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa, Willd) seeds". Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 42 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1007/BF02196067. ISSN 0921-9668. PMID 1546052. S2CID 1219019.
  18. ^ "Quinoa, cooked – Protein Quality". Retrieved 2022-11-24.
  19. ^ Ruales, J; de Grijalva, Y; Lopez-Jaramillo, P; Nair, BM (2002). "The nutritional quality of an infant food from quinoa and its effect on the plasma level of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in undernourished children". International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 53 (2): 143–54. doi:10.1080/09637480220132157. ISSN 0963-7486. PMID 11939108. S2CID 12001819.
  20. ^ Nosworthy, MG (2018-05-25). "Effect of Processing on the In Vitro and In Vivo Protein Quality of Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris and Vicia Faba)". Nutrients. 10 (6): 671. doi:10.3390/nu10060671. PMC 6024599. PMID 29799474.
  21. ^ "Peanuts, all types, cooked, boiled, with salt – Protein Quality". Retrieved 2022-11-24.
  22. ^ a b Edwards, D. G; Cummings, J. H (2010). "The protein quality of mycoprotein". Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 69. doi:10.1017/S0029665110001400.
  23. ^ Narasimha, D. L. R; Venkataraman, G. S; Duggal, Surinder K; Eggum, Bjorn O (1982). "Nutritional quality of the blue-green alga Spirulina platensis geitler". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 33 (5): 456–60. doi:10.1002/jsfa.2740330511. PMID 6806536.
  24. ^ "Seaweed, spirulina, dried – Protein Quality". Retrieved 2022-11-24.
  25. ^ Gorissen, Stefan H. M.; Crombag, Julie J. R.; Senden, Joan M. G.; Waterval, W. A. Huub; Bierau, Jörgen; Verdijk, Lex B.; Loon, Luc J. C. van (2018). "Protein content and amino acid composition of commercially available plant-based protein isolates". Amino Acids. 50 (12): 1685–1695. doi:10.1007/s00726-018-2640-5. PMC 6245118. PMID 30167963.
  26. ^ a b c d e f g Trumbo, Paula (2003). "Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein and amino acids" (PDF). Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 102 (11): 1621–30. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(02)90346-9. PMID 12449285. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-03-07. Retrieved 2019-06-14.
  27. ^ "Dietary Reference Intakes: Macronutrients" (PDF). Umich.edu. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  28. ^ "Nutrition Facts Help". Nutritiondata.self.com. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  29. ^ 10 Proteins and Amino Acids. 2005. doi:10.17226/10490. ISBN 978-0-309-08525-0. Retrieved 3 November 2018. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  30. ^ "Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Milk, human, mature, fluid". Ndb.nal.usda.gov. Archived from the original on October 29, 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  31. ^ "Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Full Report (All Nutrients): 20035, Quinoa, uncooked". ndb.nal.usda.gov. Retrieved 2019-05-26.[dead link‍]
  32. ^ "Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Corn, sweet, yellow, raw". USDA Food Composition Databases. Retrieved 2019-06-07.[dead link‍]
  33. ^ "Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Oats (Includes foods for USDA's Food Distribution Program)". ndb.nal.usda.gov. Retrieved 2019-03-09.[dead link‍]
  34. ^ "Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Seeds, hemp seed, hulled". Ndb.nal.usda.gov. Archived from the original on June 21, 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  35. ^ "Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Peas, green, raw". USDA Food Composition Databases. Archived from the original on June 21, 2018. Retrieved 2019-05-27.
  36. ^ "Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Soybeans, green, raw". Ndb.nal.usda.gov. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  37. ^ "Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Seaweed, spirulina, dried". Ndb.nal.usda.gov. Archived from the original on June 4, 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  38. ^ Fowden, L (1952). "The composition of the bulk proteins of Chlorella". Biochemical Journal. 50 (3): 355–8. doi:10.1042/bj0500355. PMC 1197660. PMID 14915957.
  39. ^ "Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Whey, acid, fluid". Ndb.nal.usda.gov. Archived from the original on June 25, 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  40. ^ "Recent developments in protein quality evaluation". Fao.org. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  41. ^ "Food Composition Databases Show Foods -- Egg, white, raw, fresh". Ndb.nal.usda.gov. Archived from the original on June 4, 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protein_quality&oldid=1253245701"