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{{Short description|none}}{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}[[File:Abdus Salam 1987.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Abdus Salam]] was the world's second scientist from a Muslim country to win a [[Nobel Prize]].]][[STEM fields|Science and technology]] have been pivotal in Pakistan's development since its inception. The country boasts a large pool of scientists, engineers, doctors, and technicians actively contributing to these fields.
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[[Liaquat Ali Khan]], Pakistan's first Prime Minister, initiated reforms to improve higher education and scientific research. However, significant growth in science occurred after the establishment of the [[Higher Education Commission (Pakistan)|Higher Education Commission]] in 2002, which supported science initiatives and sponsored the [[Pakistan Academy of Sciences]].<ref>http://www.hec.gov.pk/english/Pages/Home.aspx</ref>
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Pakistan has made significant contributions in various scientific fields, with chemistry being particularly strong. The [[International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences]] is a leading institution in this area, offering one of the largest postgraduate research programs in the country. Other notable fields include physics, material science, metallurgy, biology, and mathematics.
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
[[File:Abdus Salam 1987.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Abdus Salam]] was the world's second scientist from a Muslim country to win a [[Nobel Prize]].]]
[[File:Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman is first scientist from the Muslim World to be elected Fellow of Royal Society (London) in recognition of researches conducted within an Islamic country.]]
[[File:Prof. Wofgang Voelter.png|thumb|Prof. Wolfgang Voelter eminent German scientist with building established at International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, Karachi University in his honour]]
[[File:HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry.png|thumb|HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry]]
[[STEM fields|Science and technology]] is a growing field in [[Pakistan]] and has played an important role in the country's development since its founding. Pakistan has a large pool of scientists, engineers, doctors, and technicians assuming an active role in science and technology. The real growth in science in Pakistan occurred after the establishment of the Higher education Commission in 2002 which supported science in a big way and also became the major sponsor of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences under the leadership of Prof. [[Atta-ur-Rahman (chemist)|Atta-ur-Rahman]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.hec.gov.pk/english/Pages/Home.aspx | title=Home}}</ref> The emphasis was placed on quality rather than numbers during this period.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/816428-fix-the-hec|title=Fix the HEC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/812728-the-hec-in-a-mess|title=The HEC in a mess}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/853586-higher-quality|title=Higher quality}}</ref> The quality measures introduced by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman as Founding Chairman HEC included:1) All [[Ph.D.]] thesis were evaluated by eminent foreign scientists,2) All PhD theses and research papers were checked for plagiarism 3) Some 11,000 students were sent abroad to leading universities for PhD level training and absorbed on their return, 4) Appointments at faculty positions were linked to international stature of the applicants as judged from their international publications, patents and citations, and (5) Quality Enhancement Cells were established in all universities for the first time in the history of the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wenr.wes.org/2007/12/wenr-novemberdecember-2007-feature.|title = Higher Education Reform in Pakistan|date = December 2007}}</ref> (6) The minimum criteria for establishment of a new university were approved by the Cabinet and universities that did not meet this criteria were closed down.<ref>https://hec.gov.pk/english/services/universities/Documents/887_HEC2_Criteria_of_university_institutions.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> (7) The Model University Ordinance was approved (Appendix 3 in the reference) setting the governance parameters for new universities.<ref>https://www.hec.gov.pk/english/services/universities/Documents/887_HEC2_Criteria_of_university_institutions.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> (8) A list of fake higher education institutions was prepared and made public.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hec.gov.pk/english/universities/Pages/AJK/Illegal-DAIs.aspx|title = Illegal/Fake Universities & Campuses}}</ref> (9) Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) was set up within the Higher Education Commission that established Quality Enhancement Cells (QECs) as its operational units in public and private-sector universities across the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hec.gov.pk/english/services/universities/QAA/Pages/default.aspx|title=Quality Assurance Agency}}</ref> (10) The funding of universities was linked to excellence in teaching and research under a formula based funding mechanism that considered enrolment, subjects and quality of teaching and research.<ref>https://www.hec.gov.pk/english/services/universities/FP/Documents/Funding-policy-HEIs.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> The first IT policy and implementation strategy was approved under the leadership of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman, then Federal Minister of Science & technology, in August 2000 which laid the foundations of the development of this sector<ref name="moit.gov.pk">{{Cite web |url=http://www.moit.gov.pk/moit/userfiles1/file/policies/Pakistan%20IT%20Policy%20%20Action%20Plan%202000.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=3 February 2018 |archive-date=3 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203130230/http://www.moit.gov.pk/moit/userfiles1/file/policies/Pakistan%20IT%20Policy%20%20Action%20Plan%202000.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> On the request of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman, Intel initiated a nationwide programme to train school teachers in Information and Communication technologies in March 2002 which has led to the training of 220,000 school teachers in 70 districts and cities across Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://ictec.wordpress.com/2010/01/21/intel-ict-programs-in-pakistan/ | title=INTEL ICT Programs in Pakistan| date=21 January 2010}}</ref> A 15-year tax holiday was approved on the recommendation of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman which has resulted in growth of IT business from $30 million in 2001 to over $3 billion.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/197985-Pakistan-at-a-crossroads | title=Pakistan at a crossroads}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.science.org/content/article/science-and-technology-pakistan-way-forward-rev2 | title=Science and Technology in Pakistan: The Way Forward| date=13 September 2002}}</ref> The Pakistan Austria University of Applied Engineering (Fachhochschule) has been established in Haripur Hazara under a Steering Committee Chaired by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman in which students will get degrees from several Austrian universities.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.paf-iast.edu.pk/project-detail | title=Paf-Iast}}</ref> Pakistan's growth in scientific output can be seen from the fact that in 1990 Pakistan published 926 scholarly documents while in 2018 the number rose to 20548, a twenty times increase.In contrast [[India]] published 21443 scholarly documents in 1990 and the number rose to 171356 in 2018, an eight times increase.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?region=Asiatic%20Region&year=2018|title=Scimago Journal and country rank|website=Scimago institutions ranking}}</ref> In 2018, 336 people per million were researchers in the R&D (Research and Development sector) in Pakistan compared to 256 people per million being researchers in India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Researchers in R&D(per million people)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.SCIE.RD.P6|website=The world bank}}</ref> The reforms begun by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS in 2003-2008 have continued over the subsequent decade and according to the Web of Science report, there was a 300% growth in research publications in 2019 over the decade, with 2019 marking the first year in which Pakistan was ranked above the world average in research. In 2019, Pakistan produced 300% more publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection than in 2010. In the decade of 2010-2019, more than half of Pakistan’s research was published in journals with Impact Factor. The global influence of Pakistan’s research is increasing as scientists in the country are publishing more in top quartile journals. The Category Normalized Citation Impact of Pakistan’s publications (which measures publications’ impact against their peers worldwide) has risen from 0.67 to 1.03. output.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://discover.clarivate.com/pakistanresearchreport2020|title=Web of Science Group}}</ref> As of 2020, Pakistan has 85% teledensity with 183 million celllular, 98 million 3G/4G and 101 million broadband subscribers, due to the foundations laid by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman of the IT and telecom industry during 2000-2008.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1875671/pakistan|title=Pakistani startups raise $85 million in 2021 with rush of foreign capital in fintechs|date=13 June 2021}}</ref> In an analysis of scientific research productivity of Pakistan, in comparison to Brazil, Russia, India and China, Thomson Reuters has applauded the developments that have taken place as a result of the reforms introduced by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS, since Pakistan has emerged as the country with the highest increase in the percentage of highly cited papers in comparison to the "BRIC" countries<ref>http://ip-science.interest.thomsonreuters.com/incites-pakistan/ {{Dead link|date=March 2022}}</ref>


Pakistani scientists have achieved international acclaim in mathematics and several branches of physical science. Professor [[Abdus Salam]], a theoretical physicist, won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979, while Professor [[Atta-ur-Rahman (chemist)|Atta-ur-Rahman]], an organic chemist, was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] in 2006.
Chemistry remains the strongest subject in the country with the International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences playing the lead role with the largest postgraduate research program in the country having about 600 students enrolled for PhD.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://iccs.edu/ | title=International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.technologyreview.pk/higher-education-past-present-future/ | title=Higher Education Past, Present and Future| date=10 February 2016}}</ref>[[Physics]] ([[Theoretical physics|theoretical]], [[Nuclear physics|nuclear]], [[Particle physics|particle]], [[Laser physics|laser]], and [[quantum physics]]), [[material science]], [[metallurgy]] ([[Metallurgical Engineering|engineering]]), [[biology]], and [[mathematics]], are some of the other fields in which Pakistani scientists have contributed. From the 1960s and onwards, the Pakistani government made the development and advancement of science a national priority and showered top scientists with honours. While the government has made efforts to make science a part of national development, there have been criticisms of federal policies, such as the government's dissolution of the [[Higher Education Commission of Pakistan]] (HEC)— an administrative body that supervised research in science – in 2011. This attempted dissolution failed to materialise because of a Supreme Court of Pakistan decision on a petition filed by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman, former Federal Minister of Science & Technology and former founding Chairman of the Higher Education Commission.<ref name="tribune.com.pk">{{Cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/148178/sc-rejects-petitions-against-hec-devolution/ | title=18th Amendment implementation: Supreme Court comes to HEC's rescue| date=13 April 2011}}</ref> Pakistani scientists have also won acclaim in mathematics and in several branches of physical science, notably theoretical and nuclear physics, chemistry, and astronomy. Professor [[Abdus Salam]], a theoretical physicist won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1979, being the first and only Pakistani to date to have received the honor. Prof. [[Atta-ur-Rahman (chemist)|Atta-ur-Rahman]] an organic chemist was elected as Fellow of Royal Society (London) in 2006 in recognition of his contributions in the field of natural products thereby becoming the first scientist from the Islamic world to receive this honour for work carried out within an Islamic country.<ref name="royalsociety.org">{{Cite web | url=https://royalsociety.org/people/atta-ur-rahman-12136/ | title=Atta-Ur Rahman &#124; Royal Society}}</ref> The contributions of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman to uplift science and higher education in Pakistan were internationally acknowledged and a tribute paid to him in the world's leading science journal Nature that termed him as "a force of nature".<ref name="ReferenceC">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1038/467378a|pmid = 20864966| title=Boom and bust plagues Pakistan's universities| journal=Nature| volume=467| issue=7314| pages=378–379| year=2010| last1=Brumfiel| first1=Geoff| last2=Inman| first2=Mason| doi-access=free}}</ref> In an analysis of scientific research productivity of Pakistan, in comparison to Brazil, Russia, India, and China, Thomson Reuters has applauded the developments that have taken place as a result of the reforms introduced by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS, since Pakistan has emerged as the country with the highest increase in the percentage of highly cited papers in comparison to the "BRIC" countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ip-science.interest.thomsonreuters.com/incites-pakistan|title=Pakistan vs BRIC countries – scientific influence and citation impact report|website=ip-science.interest.thomsonreuters.com}}</ref> In recognition of building strong bridges between science in Pakistan and China, Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS received the highest national award of China, the "International Science and Technology Cooperation Award".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/581104-dr-atta-to-receive-highest-international-s-t-cooperation-award-of-china|title=Dr Atta to receive highest 'International S&T Cooperation Award' of China}}</ref><ref>http://mofa.gov.pk/president-of-china-confers-highest-chinese-scientific-award-on-prof-atta-ur-rahman/</ref> His book on NMR spectroscopy published by Springer Verlag was translated into Japanese language and used for teaching courses on NMR spectroscopy in Japan.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780387962436|title = Nuclear Magnetic Resonance &#124; SpringerLink}}</ref> His book entitled "Stereoselective Synthesis in Organic Chemistry" published by [[Springer Verlag]] was described as a "monumental tome" by the Nobel Laureate Sir Derek Barton who wrote the Foreword to this book.<ref>https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bfm%3A978-1-4613-8327-7%2F1.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>


In terms of technology, Pakistan has made significant strides in [[nuclear physics]] and explosives engineering, primarily driven by security concerns. The country is also involved in [[space exploration]], with a focus on military applications. Pakistan is an associate member of [[CERN]], a prestigious international research organization.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/930265/pakistan-officially-becomes-an-associate-member-of-cern|title=Pakistan officially becomes an associate member of CERN|date=31 July 2015|website=The Express Tribune}}</ref>
Technology is highly developed in nuclear physics and [[explosives engineering]], where the arms race with India convinced policymakers to set aside sufficient resources for research. Due to a programme directed by [[Munir Ahmad Khan]] and the [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] (PAEC), Pakistan is the seventh nation to have developed an [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction#Development of nuclear weapons|atomic bomb]], which the global intelligence community believes it had done by 1983 (see ''[[Kirana-I]]''), nine years after India (see [[Pokhran-I]]). Pakistan first publicly tested its devices (see ''[[Chagai-I]]'' and ''[[Chagai-II]]'') on 28 and 30 May 1998, two weeks after India carried out its own tests (See ''[[Pokhran-II]]'').<ref>{{Cite web
| last = Helmenstine, PhD
| first =Anne Marie
| author-link = Anne Marie Helmenstine
| title =This Day in Science History – 28 May – Pakistan Goes Nuclear
| publisher =Anne Marie Helmenstine of the chemistry.com
| url =http://chemistry.about.com/b/2011/05/27/this-day-in-science-history-may-28-pakistan-goes-nuclear.htm
}}</ref>


==Overview==
[[Space exploration]] was hastily developed, in 1990 Pakistan launched [[Badr-1]] followed by [[Badr-B|Badr-II]] in 2001. Since the 1980s, the space programme dedicated itself to military technologies ([[Integrated Missile Research and Development Programme|Space weapons programme]] and [[List of missiles of Pakistan|Integrated missile systems]]), and maintains a strong programme developed for military applications.
{{main|History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent|History of measurement systems in Pakistan|List of Pakistani scientists}}


The Scientific and Technological Research Division (S&TR) was established in 1964 to coordinate and implement national science and technology policy, promote research, and facilitate the utilization of research results and scientific and technological manpower.
Pakistan is an associate member of [[CERN]], one of the few countries to obtain that status.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/930265/pakistan-officially-becomes-an-associate-member-of-cern/|title=Pakistan officially becomes an associate member of CERN|date=31 July 2015}}</ref> Pakistan was ranked 99th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2021, up from 105th in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=2022-03-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation?|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2021-09-02|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en}}</ref>


Since 1972, the [[Ministry of Science and Technology (Pakistan)|Ministry of Science and Technology]] (MoST) has been the national focal point for the Government of Pakistan, planning and coordinating scientific and technological programs aligned with the national agenda. Its goal is to build a strong and sustainable research base for socio-economic development. The Ministry promotes technological advancements in industrial development, renewable energy, and rural development to boost growth and improve living standards. Its main focus is on enhancing Pakistan's technological skills, increasing human resources to combat brain drain, and integrating technological infrastructure to strengthen institutions, improve governance of the S&TR, and support local innovation systems.
During 2018-2019, the Government of Pakistan has formed a number of Task Forces to strengthen science and technology, information technology and knowledge economy. The task force formed in 2018 on "Technology Driven Knowledge Economy" is chaired by the Prime Minister Mr. Imran Khan and has Atta-ur-Rahman as its Vice Chairman <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/401882-pm-okays-task-force-to-form-tech-driven-knowledge-economy|title = PM okays task force to form tech-driven knowledge economy}}</ref> The group has several important Federal Ministers as members including Ministers of Finance, Planning, Education, IT/Telecom, Science & Technology and chairman Higher Education Commission. The task force aims to promote research in important and emerging technology fields.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofislamabad.com/29-Jan-2019/pakistan-to-be-shifted-towards-technology-driven-knowledge-economy-report|title=Pakistan to be shifted towards technology driven knowledge economy: Report|date=29 January 2019}}</ref> Another important task force of the Prime Minister is that on science & technology with Atta-ur-Rahman as its chairman.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2019/02/22/cabinet-approves-task-force-on-science-and-tech/|title = Cabinet approves task force on science and tech &#124; Pakistan Today}}</ref> As a result of the efforts of these Task Forces under the leadership of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS, a huge change has occurred in the Ministry of Science and Technology and the development budget of the Federal Ministry of Science and technology has been enhanced by over 600% due to the projects initiated by these Task Forces, allowing a large number of new important initiatives in the fields of materials engineering, genomics, industrial biotechnology, alternative energy, minerals, regenerative medicine, neuroscience, and artificial intelligence to be undertaken.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1514904|title=Development budget of science & technology ministry increased by 600pc: Fawad|date=5 November 2019}}</ref> Pakistan's first foreign engineering university (Pak Austria Fachhochschule) is a unique hybrid model involving a Fachhochschule half and a postgraduate research half, with a central technology park. With 8 foreign universities collaborating (3 Austrian and 5 Chinese), it has also started functioning under the supervision of a steering committee headed by Atta-ur-Rahman<ref>https://paf-iast.edu.pk/</ref> in Haripur, Hazara. A number of such foreign engineering universities are in the process of being established under the supervision of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS. These include one in Sialkot the foundation stone of which has already been laid by the Prime Minister of Pakistan,<ref>https://hed.punjab.gov.pk/notification-of-steering-committee</ref> and another in the lands behind Prime Minister House, Islamabad<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.dawn.com/news/1493101| title = Govt changes master plan of Islamabad to set up university at PM House - Pakistan - DAWN.COM| date = 10 July 2019}}</ref>


==History==
=== Golden Age ===
[[File:Atta-ur-Rahman UNESCO.pdf|thumb|Prof. [[Atta-ur-Rahman (chemist)|Atta-ur-Rahman]] FRS receiving UNESCO Science Prize at World Congress on Science in Budapest Hungary (1999)]]The 1960s and 1970s marked the initial rise of Pakistan's science, which gained international recognition in various science communities. During this period, scientists contributed significantly to the fields of Natural Product Chemistry, theoretical, particle, mathematical, and nuclear physics, as well as other major and subfields of Chemistry and Physics. The research was spearheaded by scientists such as [[Riazuddin (physicist)|Riazuddin]], [[Ishfaq Ahmad Khan|Ishfaq Ahmad]], [[Salimuzzaman Siddiqui]], [[Atta-ur-Rahman (chemist)|Atta-ur-Rahman]] and [[Samar Mubarakmand]].<ref name="ICTP">{{cite web |author=Riazuddin |date=21 November 1998 |title=Physics in Pakistan |url=http://portal.ictp.it/pio/words/newsletter/backissues/News_94/features_Pakistan.html/?searchterm=Riazuddin |access-date=5 May 2020 |work=ICTP}}</ref>
{{main|History of science and technology in Pakistan|History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent}}
The Scientific and Technological Research Division (S&TR) was established in 1964 for (i) coordination and implementation of national science and technology policy; (ii) promotion and coordination of research and utilization of the results of research; (iii) development, production and utilization of nuclear energy; and (iv) coordination of utilization of scientific and technological manpower. The Division was administratively responsible for the National Science Council, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Atomic Energy Commission and Space and Upper Atmospheric Research Committee.
The Ministry of Science and Technology (MoS&T) has been functioning since 1972. It is the national focal point and enabling arm of Government of Pakistan for planning, coordinating and directing efforts; to initiate and launch scientific and technological programs and projects as per national agenda for sound and sustainable Science & Technology Research base for the socio-economic development.
From the areas of industrial development to renewable energy and rural development, the Ministry suggests technological development for higher growth-rates and to improve standards of living. Its principal focus is on building Pakistan's technological competence and developing a larger pool of human resources to reverse brain drain, and for integrating the existing technological infrastructure for the strengthening of technology institutions, effective governance of S&TR and enhancing the capacity of indigenous innovation systems.


The major growth in scientific output occurred after the establishment of the [[Higher Education Commission (Pakistan)|Higher Education Commission]], accompanied by a 60-fold increase in funding for science.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Eloqua - Error Information |url=http://images.info.science.thomsonreuters.biz/Web/ThomsonReutersScience/%7Bdab71dc1-d7d8-48af-88a6-fa7efa61ae22%7D_Pakistan_Citation_Report_FINAL.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024192313/http://images.info.science.thomsonreuters.biz/Web/ThomsonReutersScience/%257Bdab71dc1-d7d8-48af-88a6-fa7efa61ae22%257D_Pakistan_Citation_Report_FINAL.pdf |archive-date=24 October 2019 |access-date=25 June 2017}}</ref>
===Golden age of science===


The real growth of science in Pakistan occurred under the leadership of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman during 2000–2008 when he was the Federal Minister of Science & Technology and later Chairman of the Higher Education Commission (HEC). The chairperson of the Senate Standing Committee on Education hailed the first six years of HEC under Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman as "Pakistan's golden period."<ref name=":1" />
The 1960s and the 1970s period is regarded as the initial rise of Pakistan's science, which gained an international reputation in the different science communities of the world.<ref name="ICTP" /> During this period, scientists contributed to the fields of, particularly, [[Natural Product Chemistry]], [[Theoretical physics|theoretical]], [[Particle physics|particle]], [[Mathematical physics|mathematical]], and [[nuclear physics]], and other major and subfields of Chemistry and Physics.<ref name="ICTP" /> The research was preceded by such scientists as [[Riazuddin (physicist)|Riazuddin]], [[Ishfaq Ahmad]], [[Salimuzzaman Siddiqui]], [[Atta-ur-Rahman]] and [[Samar Mubarakmand]]. However, the major growth in scientific output occurred after the establishment of the Higher Education Commission which was accompanied by a 60-fold increase in funding for science


Dr. Abdus Salam, the first Pakistani winner of the [[Nobel Prize]] in Physics, was the father of physics research in Pakistan. Under his watchful direction, mathematicians and physicists tackled the greatest and outstanding problems in physics and mathematics. From 1960 to 1974, Salam led the research at its peak, prompting international recognition of Pakistani mathematicians and physicists. This allowed them to conduct their research at CERN.<ref name="ICTP" />  
[[File:Atta-ur-Rahman UNESCO.pdf|thumb|Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS receiving UNESCO Science Prize at World Congress on Science in Budapest Hungary (1999)]]


Salam and his students revolutionized particle and theoretical physics, becoming modern pioneers in the field. Pure research in Quantum electrodynamics, Quantum field theory, protonic decay, and other major fields of physics was pioneered by Pakistani scientists. With the establishment of nuclear and neutron institutes, Pakistan's mathematicians introduced complex mathematical applications to study and examine the behaviors of elements during the fission process. Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, Atta-ur-Rahman and Iqbal Choudhary are the pioneering personalities for studying the isolation of unique chemical compounds from the [[Azadirachta indica|Neem (''Azadirachta indica'')]], ''[[Rauvolfia]]'', periwinkle (''Catharanthus roseus''), (''Buxus papillosa'') and various other plants.
[[File:Prof. Dr. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS.jpg|thumb|Prof. Dr. Atta-ur-Rahman being awarded Fellowship of Royal Society (London) by Prof. Sir Martin Reese, President of Royal Society, 14th July 2006]]


=== State Control ===
[[File:Atta-ur-Rahman Institute of Natural Product Discovery established in Malaysia's largest university, Universiti Teknologi, Mara, near Kuala Lumpur.jpg|thumb|Atta-ur-Rahman Institute of Natural Product Discovery established in Malaysia's largest university, Universiti Teknologi, Mara, near Kuala Lumpur]]
Most research programs in Pakistan take place not only at universities but also at specialized research facilities and institutes. Some of these institutes operate under the [[Ministry of Science and Technology (Pakistan)|Ministry of Science and Technology]], which oversees scientific development, along with the [[Pakistan Academy of Sciences]] and various specialized institutes. The Pakistan Academy of Sciences, established in 1953 and relocated to Islamabad in 1964, focuses primarily on the natural sciences, especially physics. From 1947 to 1971, research was conducted independently, with little government influence.<ref name="Directorate for Electronic Government (DEG)and the Directorate for the Scientific and Technological Research Division (STRD)">{{cite web |last=MoST |first=Ministry of Science and Technology |author-link=Ministry of Science and Technology (Pakistan) |title=Ministry of Science and Technology |url=http://www.most.gov.pk/ |work=Government of Pakistan |publisher=Directorate for Electronic Government (DEG)and the Directorate for the Scientific and Technological Research Division (STRD)}}</ref>


The High Tension Laboratories (HTL) at [[Government College University, Lahore]], were founded by [[Rafi Muhammad Chaudhry|R. M. Chaudhry]] with British government funding in the 1950s. In 1967, Professor [[Abdus Salam]] established the [[Department of Physics, Quaid-e-Azam University|Institute of Theoretical Physics]] at Quaid-e-Azam University, along with the [[Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology|Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology]] and the [[Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences|Centre for Nuclear Studies]], with support from European countries. However, after Zulfikar Ali Bhutto became president in 1972, he centralized scientific research under his socialist reforms and established the Ministry of Science, appointing [[Ishrat Hussain Usmani]] as its head.<ref name="Directorate for Electronic Government (DEG)and the Directorate for the Scientific and Technological Research Division (STRD)" /><ref name="Dr. Hameed Ahmad Khan, Doctor of Science in (Astroparticle Physics) and Doctor of Philosophy in (Nuclear Physics) from the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom.">{{Cite journal |last=Ahmad |first=Hameed Ahmad |date=November 2004 |title=Education, Science and Technology in Developing Countries: Some Thoughts and Recollection: §Higher Education in Pakistan: Current and Future Scenarios. |url=http://www.comsats.org/Publications/Other_Docs/Education_Science_and_Technology_in_Developing_Countries_2004.pdf |journal=COMSATS Journal of Science |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=212 |access-date=5 May 2020}}</ref>
The real growth of science in Pakistan occurred under the leadership of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman during 2000–2008 when he was the Federal Minister of Science & Technology and later Chairman of the Higher Education Commission (HEC) with the status of Federal Minister. The chairperson of the Senate Standing Committee on Education announced the first 6 years of HEC under Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman as "Pakistan's golden period".<ref name="ReferenceB">Voelter, Wolfgang. "The golden period". Dawn ePaper. The golden period, The Dawn, retrieved 20 March 2010</ref> Thomson Reuters, in an independent assessment of Pakistan's progress in international publications, has acknowledged that in the last decade there has been a fourfold increase in international publications and a tenfold growth in highly cited papers, statistics that were better than the BRIC countries.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://images.info.science.thomsonreuters.biz/Web/ThomsonReutersScience/%7Bdab71dc1-d7d8-48af-88a6-fa7efa61ae22%7D_Pakistan_Citation_Report_FINAL.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=25 June 2017 |archive-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024192313/http://images.info.science.thomsonreuters.biz/Web/ThomsonReutersScience/%257Bdab71dc1-d7d8-48af-88a6-fa7efa61ae22%257D_Pakistan_Citation_Report_FINAL.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>


During the 1950s and 1960s, both West and East Pakistan had their own academies of science, with [[East Pakistan]] dependent on funding from the West. Medical research is managed by the Health Ministry, agricultural research by the Agriculture Ministry, and environmental sciences by the Environment Ministry.<ref name="Dr. Hameed Ahmad Khan, Doctor of Science in (Astroparticle Physics) and Doctor of Philosophy in (Nuclear Physics) from the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom." /><ref>{{cite web |last=(moenv) |first=Ministry of Environment |author-link=Ministry of Environment (Pakistan) |title=Ministry of Environment |url=http://www.moenv.gov.pk/ |publisher=Electronic Government Directorate and Directorate for the Environmental Research and Applied Science (ERAS)}}</ref>
The remarkable transformation of science and higher education under the leadership of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman as Federal Minister of Science & Technology and later as Chairman of Higher Education Commission with status of a Federal Minister during the period 2000–2008 was applauded by many independent experts and he was called a "force of nature" in a review published in Nature<ref name="ReferenceC"/>


Following the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War, [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto|Bhutto]] increased scientific funding by over 200%, primarily for military research. With Dr. Salam’s guidance, Bhutto recruited Pakistani scientists abroad to develop the atomic bomb. This program was initially led by Dr. Salam and later by Dr. [[Munir Ahmad Khan]] until 1991. Zia-ul-Haq, who took power in the 1980s, enforced pseudoscience in education and promoted Dr. [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]] to export sensitive military technologies to Libya, Iran, and North Korea. Due to government control, much of Pakistan’s academic research remains classified and unknown to the international scientific community. There have been numerous failed attempts by foreign powers, including Libya and the CIA, to infiltrate Pakistan’s research facilities.<ref name="Brigadier-General Syed A. I. Tirmazi">Brigadier-General Syed A. I. Tirmazi (1985). Profiles of Intelligence. Combined Printers. Library of Congress Catalogue No. 95-930455.</ref>
Dr. [[Abdus Salam]], the first Pakistani winner of the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]], was the father of physics research in Pakistan.<ref name="ICTP">{{cite web |author=Riazuddin |title=Physics in Pakistan |url=http://portal.ictp.it/pio/words/newsletter/backissues/News_94/features_Pakistan.html/?searchterm=Riazuddin |work= ICTP |date=21 November 1998 |access-date=5 May 2020}}</ref> Under the watchful direction of Salam, mathematicians and physicists tackled the greatest and outstanding [[List of unsolved problems in physics|problems]] in physics and [[List of unsolved problems in mathematics|mathematics]].<ref name="ICTP"/> From 1960 to 1974, Salam was responsible for leading the research at its maximum point. This prompted the international recognition of Pakistani mathematicians and physicists, allowing them to conduct their research at CERN.<ref name="ICTP"/> Salam and his students (Riazuddin, Fayyazuddin, and others) revolutionized particle and theoretical physics, are thought to be modern pioneers of particle physics at all aspect of it. Pure research was undertaken in [[Quantum electrodynamics]], [[Quantum field theory]], [[Proton decay|protonic decay]] and major fields in physics, were pioneered by Pakistan's scientists. With the establishment of nuclear and neutron institutes in the country, Pakistan's mathematicians introduced complex mathematical applications to study and examine the behaviours of elements during the fission process. Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, Atta-ur-Rahman and Iqbal Choudhary are the pioneering personalities for studying the isolation of unique chemical compounds from the [[Azadirachta indica|Neem (''Azadirachta indica'')]], ''[[Rauvolfia]]'', periwinkle (''Catharanthus roseus''), (''Buxus papillosa'') and various other plants.


In 2002, the [[University Grants Commission (Pakistan)|University Grants Commission]] was replaced by the [[Higher Education Commission (Pakistan)|Higher Education Commission]] (HEC), tasked with reforming higher education by improving financial incentives, increasing university enrollment and PhD graduates, enhancing foreign scholarships and research collaborations, and providing state-of-the-art ICT facilities. The HEC also upgraded scientific laboratories, rehabilitated educational facilities, and developed a regional digital library. The HEC also provided free high-speed internet access to scientific literature and launched initiatives to create new universities and science parks.
==State controlled science==
Unlike some [[Western countries]], the majority of the research programmes are conducted not at the institutions (such as universities) but at specially set up research facilities and institutes.<ref name="Directorate for Electronic Government (DEG)and the Directorate for the Scientific and Technological Research Division (STRD)"/> These institutes are performed under the government's [[Ministry of Science and Technology (Pakistan)|Ministry of Science]] that overlooks the development and promotion of science in the country, while others are performed under the [[Pakistan Academy of Sciences]], other specialized academies and even the research arms of various government ministries.<ref name="Directorate for Electronic Government (DEG)and the Directorate for the Scientific and Technological Research Division (STRD)">{{Cite web
| last =MoST
| first =Ministry of Science and Technology
| author-link =Ministry of Science and Technology (Pakistan)
| title =Ministry of Science and Technology
| work =Government of Pakistan
| publisher =Directorate for Electronic Government (DEG)and the Directorate for the Scientific and Technological Research Division (STRD)
| url =http://www.most.gov.pk/
}}</ref> At first, the core of fundamental science was the Pakistan Academy of Sciences, originally set up in 1953 and moved from Karachi to Islamabad in 1964.<ref name="Directorate for the Information and Public Press of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences (PAS)">{{Cite web
| last =PAS
| first =Pakistan Academy of Science
| author-link =Pakistan Academy of Sciences
| title =Introduction
| work =PAS Press Directorate
| publisher =Directorate for the Information and Public Press of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences (PAS)
| url =http://www.paspk.org/indexa.htm
}}</ref> The Pakistan Academy of Sciences has a large percentage of researchers in the natural sciences, particularly physics.<ref name="Directorate for the Information and Public Press of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences (PAS)"/> From 1947 to 1971, the research was being conducted independently with no government influence.<ref name="Directorate for the Information and Public Press of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences (PAS)"/> The High Tension Laboratories (HTL) at the [[Government College University, Lahore]] (GCU) was established by [[R. M. Chaudhry]] with funds given by the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] in the 1950s.<ref name="Dr. Hameed Ahmad Khan, Doctor of Science in (Astroparticle Physics) and Doctor of Philosophy in (Nuclear Physics) from the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom.">{{Cite journal
| last =Ahmad
| first =Hameed Ahmad
| author-link =Hameed Ahmad Khan
| title =Education, Science and Technology in Developing Countries: Some Thoughts and Recollection: §Higher Education in Pakistan: Current and Future Scenarios.
| journal =COMSATS Journal of Science
| volume =1
| issue =1
| pages =212
| date =November 2004
| url =http://www.comsats.org/Publications/Other_Docs/Education_Science_and_Technology_in_Developing_Countries_2004.pdf
| access-date =5 May 2020 }}</ref> In 1967, Professor Abdus Salam led the foundation of the Institute of Theoretical Physics (ITP) at the Quaid-e-Azam University, and the establishment of the [[Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology]] (PINSTECH) and the [[Centre for Nuclear Studies]]; all were independently established by Pakistan's academic scientists with financial assistance provided by [[European countries]].<ref name="Dr. Hameed Ahmad Khan, Doctor of Science in (Astroparticle Physics) and Doctor of Philosophy in (Nuclear Physics) from the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom."/> However, after [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] became president, he took control of scientific research in 1972 as part of his intensified [[Democratic socialism|socialist reforms and policies]].<ref name="Dr. Hameed Ahmad Khan, Doctor of Science in (Astroparticle Physics) and Doctor of Philosophy in (Nuclear Physics) from the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom."/> With advice taken from Dr. [[Mubashir Hassan]], Bhutto established the Ministry of Science with [[Ishrat Hussain Usmani]], a [[bureaucrat]] with a doctorate in atomic physics.<ref name="Directorate for Electronic Government (DEG)and the Directorate for the Scientific and Technological Research Division (STRD)"/><ref name="Dr. Hameed Ahmad Khan, Doctor of Science in (Astroparticle Physics) and Doctor of Philosophy in (Nuclear Physics) from the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom."/>


=== Science policy ===
During the 1950s and 1960s, both [[West Pakistan]] and [[East Pakistan]] had their own academies of science, with East Pakistan relying on West Pakistan to allot the funds.<ref name="Directorate for Electronic Government (DEG)and the Directorate for the Scientific and Technological Research Division (STRD)"/> Medical research is coordinated and funded by the [[Ministry of Health (Pakistan)|Health Ministry]]<ref>{{Cite web
The Federal [[Ministry of Science and Technology (Pakistan)|Ministry of Science and Technology]] has overseen Pakistan's science and technology sector since 1972. In 2012, the government recognized innovation as a long-term economic growth strategy by formulating the National Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy. Key focuses of the policy include:
| last =(MH)
| first =Ministry of Health (Pakistan)
| author-link =Ministry of Health (Pakistan)
| title =Ministry of Health
| work = Government of Pakistan and the Ministry of Health of Pakistan
| publisher =Directorate for the Electronic Government (DEG) and the Directorate for the Health Research and Public Research and Development (HERPURD)
| url =http://www.health.gov.pk/
}}</ref> and agricultural research is led by [[Ministry of Agriculture (Pakistan)|Agriculture Ministry]]<ref>{{Cite web
| last =(minfal)
| first =Ministry of Food and Agriculture
| author-link =Ministry of Agriculture (Pakistan)
| title =Ministry of Agriculture
| publisher =Electronic Government Directorate and Directorate for the Agriculture Research and Applied Science (ARAS)
| url =http://www.minfal.gov.pk/
}}</ref> and likewise, the research on environmental sciences is headed by the [[Ministry of Environment (Pakistan)|Environment Ministry]].<ref name="Dr. Hameed Ahmad Khan, Doctor of Science in (Astroparticle Physics) and Doctor of Philosophy in (Nuclear Physics) from the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom."/><ref>{{Cite web
| last =(moenv)
| first =Ministry of Environment
| author-link =Ministry of Environment (Pakistan)
| title =Ministry of Environment
| publisher =Electronic Government Directorate and Directorate for the Environmental Research and Applied Science (ERAS)
| url =http://www.moenv.gov.pk/
}}</ref>


* Human resource development
The aftermath of the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 Indo-Pakistan ''Winter War'']] was that President Bhutto increased scientific funding by the Government by more than 200%, mostly dedicated to military research and development. Bhutto, with the help of his Science Adviser Dr. Salam, gathered hundreds of Pakistani scientists working abroad to develop what became Pakistan's atom bomb. This crash programme was directed at first by Dr. [[Abdus Salam]] until 1974, and then directed and led by Dr. [[Munir Ahmad Khan]] from 1974 until 1991. For the first time, an effort was made by the government when Pakistan's citizens made advancements in nuclear physics, theoretical physics, and mathematics. In the 1980s, General [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] radicalized science by enforcing pseudoscience – by his Muslim fundamentalists as administrators – in Pakistan's schools and universities. Zia-ul-Haq later promoted Dr. [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]] to export the sensitive industrial (military) technologies to [[Libya]], [[Iran]], and [[North Korea]]. Because of government control, academic research in Pakistan remains highly classified and unknown to the international scientific community. There have been several failed attempts made by foreign powers to infiltrate the country's research facilities to learn how much research has progressed and how much clandestine knowledge has been gained by Pakistan's scientists.<ref name="Brigadier-General Syed A. I. Tirmazi">Brigadier-General Syed A. I. Tirmazi (1985). Profiles of Intelligence. Combined Printers. Library of Congress Catalogue No. 95-930455.</ref> One of the notable cases was in the 1970s when the [[Mukhabarat el-Jamahiriya|Libyan intelligence]] made an unsuccessful attempt to gain knowledge on critical aspects of [[nuclear technology]], and crucial mathematical [[fast neutron calculations]] in [[theoretical physics]]. It was thwarted by the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI Directorate for Joint Intelligence Technical]] (JIT).<ref name="Brigadier-General Syed A. I. Tirmazi"/> From the 1980s and onward, both [[Russian intelligence]] and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] made several attempts to access Pakistan's research but because of the ISI, they were unable to gain any information.<ref name="Brigadier-General Syed A. I. Tirmazi"/> From the period 1980 to 2004, research in science fell short until General [[Pervez Mushrraf]] established the Higher Education Commission (HEC) which heightened the contribution of science and technology in Pakistan. The major boost to science in Pakistan occurred under the leadership of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman as the founding Chairman of the Higher Education Commission when about 11,000 students were sent to top universities abroad for Ph.D. and postdoctoral training. This has resulted in the enormous increase in the research output of Pakistan in Impact factor journals from about 800 per year in the year 2000 to over 12,000 publications per year.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/195098-Ranking-higher-education | title=Ranking higher education}}</ref> This drew positive comments from Thomson Reuters about the sharp increase in highly cited papers in comparison to Brazil, Russia, India and China<ref name="ip-science.interest.thomsonreuters.com"/> Major research was undertaken by Pakistan's institutes in the field of natural sciences.<ref name="Directorate for Electronic Government (DEG)and the Directorate for the Scientific and Technological Research Division (STRD)"/> In 2003, the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Government of Pakistan and the [[United States Department of State]] signed a comprehensive Science and Technology Cooperation Agreement that established a framework to increase cooperation in science, technology, engineering and education for mutual benefit and peaceful purposes between the science and education communities in both countries. In 2005, the [[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID) joined with the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) and the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan to support the joint Pakistan-U.S. Science and Technology Cooperation Program. Beginning in 2008, the U.S. Department of State joined USAID as U.S. co-sponsor of the program. This program, which is being implemented by the [[National Academy of Sciences]] on the U.S. side, is intended to increase the strength and breadth of cooperation and linkages between Pakistan scientists and institutions with counterparts in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sites.nationalacademies.org/PGA/dsc/pakistan/index.htm|title=Pakistan-US Science and Technology Cooperation Program|date=5 January 2015|access-date=14 January 2015}}</ref> However, with unfavourable situations,{{clarify|reason=what situations?|date=June 2015}} research declined. In 2011, the government dissolved the HEC and the control of education was taken over by governmental ministries.<ref name="Directorate for Electronic Government (DEG)and the Directorate for the Scientific and Technological Research Division (STRD)"/> Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman filed a petition in the Supreme Court of Pakistan against the government action. The Supreme Court decided in favour of the stand taken by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman, and the federal nature of the Higher Education Commission was preserved.<ref name="tribune.com.pk"/>
* Endogenous technology development
* Technology transfer
* International cooperation in R&D


By 2014, studies were completed in eleven areas, including agriculture, energy, ICT, and health. After the 2013 government change Ministry of Science and Technology issued the draft ''National Science, Technology, and Innovation Strategy 2014-2018'' . This strategy was integrated into Vision 2025, Pakistan's long-term development plan, with human development as its central pillar.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Nakandala |first1=Dilupa |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf |title=South Asia. In UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 |last2=Malik |first2=Ammar A. |publisher=UNESCO |year=2015 |isbn=978-92-3-100129-1 |location=Paris |pages=567–597}}</ref>
== Science policy ==

=== National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy ===
The Federal Ministry of Science and Technology has overseen the S&T sector since 1972. However, it was not until 2012 that Pakistan's first National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy was formulated: this was also the first time that the government had formally recognized innovation as being a long-term strategy for driving economic growth. The policy principally emphasizes the need for human resource development, endogenous technology development, technology transfer and greater international co-operation in research and development (R&D).<ref name=":0" />

The policy was informed by the technology foresight exercise undertaken by the Pakistan Council for Science and Technology from 2009 onwards. By 2014, studies had been completed in 11 areas: agriculture, energy, ICTs, education, industry, environment, health, biotechnology, water, nanotechnology, and electronics. Further foresight studies were planned on pharmaceuticals, microbiology, space technology, public health, sewage, and sanitation, as well as higher education.<ref name=":0" />

=== National Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy ===
Following the change of government in Islamabad after the May 2013 general election, the new Ministry of Science and Technology issued the draft National Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy 2014–2018, along with a request for comments from the public. This strategy has been mainstreamed into the government's long-term development plan, Vision 2025, a first for Pakistan.<ref name=":0" />

The central pillar of the draft National Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy is human development. Although the pathway to implementation is not detailed, the new strategy fixes a target of raising Pakistan's gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) from 0.29% (2013) to 0.5% of GDP by 2015 then to 1% of GDP by the end of the current government's five-year term in 2018. The ambitious target of tripling the GERD/GDP ratio in just seven years is a commendable expression of the government's resolve but ambitious reforms will need to be implemented concurrently to achieve the desired outcome.<ref name=":0" />

==National prizes==

The most prestigious government prize awarded for achievements in science and technology is ''[[Nishan-e-Imtiaz]]'' (or in English Order of Excellence). While [[Hilal-i-Imtiaz]], [[Pride of Performance]], [[Sitara-i-Imtiaz]], and [[Tamgha-e-Imtiaz]] occupies a unique role and importance in Pakistan's civil society. Atta-ur-Rahman is the only scientist of Pakistan to have won all these 4 Civil Awards.


==Achievements==
==Achievements==
{{Main|List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries}}


In 1961, Pakistan made international achievements by becoming the third Asian country and the tenth in the world to launch the [[Rehbar (rocket family)|''Rehbar-I'']]—a solid fuel expendable rocket—from [[Sonmiani Flight Test Range|Sonmani Spaceport]]. This rocket was developed and launched under the leadership of Dr. [[W. J. M. Turowicz]], a Polish-Pakistani scientist and project director. Following this launch, the program continued to conduct flights until the 1970s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=MILLARD |first=W. |date=1970-08-16 |title=Performance and flight characteristics of the Sandhawk family of rocket systems |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/6.1970-1398 |journal=2nd Sounding Rocket Technology Conference |location=Reston, Virigina |publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics |doi=10.2514/6.1970-1398}}</ref>
[[File:Dr-Atta-Inaugurates-Hunan-University-Of-Chinese-Medicines-Centre-Named-After-Him.png|thumb|Academician Dr. Atta-ur-Rahman Research Center Inaugurated at Hunan University of Chinese Medicine with Mr. Fawad Choudhary, Minister of Science of Pakistan as Guest of Honour]]


A significant breakthrough occurred in 1979 when the [[Nobel Committee|Nobel Prize Committee]] awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] to Abdus Salam for formulating the electroweak theory, which unifies the [[Weak interaction|weak nuclear force]] and [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic force]]. In 1990, the [[SUPARCO|Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission]] (SUPARCO) launched Pakistan's first locally designed communication satellite, ''[[Badr-1]]'', from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center (XLSC) in the People's Republic of China. With this launch, Pakistan became the first Muslim-majority country to develop an artificial robotic satellite and the second South Asian state to launch a satellite, after India.<ref name="Federation of American Scientists (FAS)2">{{Cite web |last=Mehmud, PhD |first=Salim |author-link=Salim Mehmud |author2=P. Proctor |date=20 March 2000<!-- 6:42:34&nbsp;am --> |title=Pakistan and Satellite Communication Systems |url=https://fas.org/spp/guide/pakistan/comm/index.html |accessdate=15 August 2011 |work=Salim Mehmud, former Chairman of the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission and technical director of the Hatf-I project. |publisher=Federation of American Scientists (FAS)}}</ref>
In 1961, international achievements first recorded in 1961 when Pakistan became the third{{clarify|date=June 2015}} Asian country and tenth{{clarify|date=June 2015}} in the world when the ''[[Rehbar-I]]'' – a solid fuel expendable rocket— was launched from Sonmani Spaceport. The ''Rehbar-I'' was developed and launched under the leadership of Dr. [[W. J. M. Turowicz]], a Polish-Pakistani scientist and then project director of this program. Since then, the program began taking flights which continued until the 1970s.


One of the most widely reported achievements occurred in 1998 when Pakistan joined the [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear club]]. In response to India's nuclear tests on May 11 and May 13, 1998, under the codename [[Operation Shakti]] at the Pokhran Test Range (PTR), the [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] (PAEC) conducted five simultaneous nuclear tests at the Chagai Hills on May 28, 1998, under the codename ''[[Chagai-I]]'', led by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. PAEC conducted another test in the Kharan Desert, known as ''[[Chagai-II]]'', resulting in six tests within a week. With these tests, Pakistan became the seventh nuclear power in the world and the only Muslim-majority country to have mastered nuclear technology. On August 13, 2011, SUPARCO launched its first indigenously developed geosynchronous satellite, ''[[Paksat-1R]]'', also from XLSC in China.<ref name="Federation of American Scientists (FAS)2" />
A major breakthrough occurred in 1979, when the [[Nobel Prize Committee]] awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] to Abdus Salam, for formulating the [[electroweak theory]] – a theory that provides the basis of unification of [[weak nuclear force]] and [[electromagnetic force]]. In 1990, the [[Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission]] (SUPARCO) launched the first, and locally designed, a communication satellite, ''[[Badr-1]]'', from [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center]] (XLSC) of the [[People's Republic of China]]. With the launch, Pakistan became the first [[Muslim majority countries|Muslim majority country]] to have developed an artificial robotic satellite, and was the second South Asian state to have launched its satellite, second to India.


In 2006, Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (London), becoming the first scientist from the Muslim world to receive this honor for his research conducted in an Islamic country. He made significant contributions to the development of natural product chemistry, and several international journals have published special issues in recognition of his work.<ref name="royalsociety.org">{{Cite web|url=https://royalsociety.org/people/atta-ur-rahman-12136/|title=Fellow Detail Page &#124; Royal Society|website=royalsociety.org}}</ref>
One of the widely reported achievements was in 1998 when the country joined the [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear club]]. In response to India's [[Nuclear weapons testing|nuclear tests]] on 11 May and 13 May 1998, under codename ''[[Operation Shakti]]'', in the long-constructed [[Pokhran Test Range]] (PTR). Under Prime Minister [[Nawaz Sharif]], the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) conducted five simultaneous tests at the [[Chagai Hills]] under codename ''[[Chagai-I]]'' on 28 May 1998. PAEC carried out another test in the [[Kharan Desert]], under ''[[Chagai-II]]'', meaning it had tested six devices in under one week. With the testing of these atomic devices, Pakistan became the seventh nuclear power in the world, and the only Muslim-majority country to have mastered the technology. On 13 August 2011, SUPARCO launched its first indigenously developed [[geosynchronous satellite]], ''[[Paksat-1R]]'' also from XLSC in China.


A landmark study by Thomson Reuters highlighted the impact of the reforms introduced by Atta-ur-Rahman, revealing that the rate of growth of highly cited papers from Pakistan over the past decade was greater than that of Brazil, Russia, India, or China.<ref name="ip-science.interest.thomsonreuters.com">{{cite web |title=Pakistan vs BRIC countries – scientific influence and citation impact report |url=http://ip-science.interest.thomsonreuters.com/incites-pakistan/}}</ref>
[[File:ATTA-UR-RAHMAN LABS.jpg|thumb|Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman Laboratories at International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, UNESCO Center of Excellence]]


Pakistan was ranked 91st in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2024.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/|title=Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship|access-date=2024-10-22|author=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|year=2024|isbn=978-92-805-3681-2|doi= 10.34667/tind.50062|website=www.wipo.int|location=Geneva|page=18}}</ref>
In 2006 Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman was elected as Fellow of Royal Society (London), thereby becoming the first scientist from the Muslim world to be so honoured in recognition of researches and contributions carried out within an Islamic country.<ref name="royalsociety.org"/> He has major contributions in the development of natural product chemistry and several international journals have published special issue in recognition of these contributions in his honour,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786419.2013.766048|doi = 10.1080/14786419.2013.766048|title = Natural Product Research special issue dedicated to Professor Atta-ur-Rahman on the occasion of his 70th birthday|year = 2013|last1 = Bianco|first1 = Armandodoriano|journal = Natural Product Research|volume = 27|issue = 4–5|page = 297|s2cid = 96991398}}</ref><ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/fitoterapia/vol/83/issue/8</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.arkat-usa.org/arkivoc-journal/browse-arkivoc/2007/7/ | title=ARKAT USA, Inc. - Browse ARKIVOC - Volume 2007 (Vii) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.eurekaselect.com/103065/article | title=A tribute to a Living Legend (Special Issue in Honor of the 70th Birthday of Dr. Atta-ur-Rahman) | journal=Current Organic Chemistry | volume=16 | issue=17 | pages=1949 | last1=Keglevich | first1=Gyorgy | year=2012 | doi=10.2174/138527212803251631 }}</ref> He contributed to the major development of science and technology as Chairman Higher Education Commission during 2002–2008 which have resulted in a significant increase in research publications in Pakistan from only about 800 research papers in Impact Factor journals in 2002 to over 11,000 publications in 2016 the quality of which has been recognised by ThomsonReuters.<ref name="ip-science.interest.thomsonreuters.com">{{Cite web | url=http://ip-science.interest.thomsonreuters.com/incites-pakistan/ | title=Pakistan vs BRIC countries – scientific influence and citation impact report}}</ref> The International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences at the University of Karachi which has developed as a leading research centre in the region under the leadership of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman was designated as a UNESCO Centre of Excellence in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/science-technology/basic-sciences/single-view-basic/news/pakistans_international_centre_for_chemical_and_biological/ | title=Pakistan's International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences placed under the auspices of UNESCO &#124; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman was awarded the high Civil Award of the Government of Austria (the 'Grosses goldenes Ehrenzeichen am Bande') in 2007 in recognition for his contributions for uplifting science in Pakistan,<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/14786419.2013.766053 | pmid=23473069 | volume=27 | issue=4–5 | title=Professor Atta-ur-Rahman: towering scientific achievements | journal=Natural Product Research | pages=298–301| year=2013 | last1=Choudhary | first1=Muhammad Iqbal | doi-access=free }}</ref> and the Government of China also honoured him with the highest Award for Foreigners (Friendship Award) in recognition of his eminent contributions.<ref>http://news.uniquepakistan.com.pk/chinas-highest-national-award-prof-atta-ur-rahman/ {{Dead link|date=March 2022}}</ref> The largest university of Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi Mara, established a Research Centre entitled " Dr. Atta-ur-Rahman Research Institute of natural Product Discovery" to honour this great Muslim scientist for uplifting science in Pakistan and in the Muslim world in his capacity as Coordinator General COMSTECH, a Ministerial Committee comprising 57 Ministers of Science and Technology of the 57 OIC member countries.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://aurins.uitm.edu.my/ | title=Index of /}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://globalknowledgeinitiative.org/person/atta-ur-rahman/ | title=Atta-ur-Rahman – Global Knowledge Initiative}}</ref> More recently, the leading Chinese University on Traditional Medicine in Changsha, Hunan has also decided to name a research institute in honour of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS, in recognition of his eminent contributions to uplift science in Pakistan and to establish strong linkages with China.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1982029/1-chinese-research-center-named-dr-attaur-rahman/ | title=Chinese research center to be named after Dr Attaur Rahman | date=28 May 2019 }}</ref>


== National Institutions ==
In another landmark study undertaken by Thomson Reuters, highlighting the impact of the reforms introduced by Atta-ur-Rahman, it was revealed that the rate of growth of highly cited papers from Pakistan in a decade was even greater than that in Brazil, Russia, India or China<ref name="ip-science.interest.thomsonreuters.com"/>


== Information technology ==
=== Scientific research ===
{{main|Information technology in Pakistan}}

The rapid progress made by Pakistan in the IT and telecom sector during 2000–2002, under Professor [[Atta-ur-Rahman (politician)|Atta-ur-Rahman]] as Federal Minister, led to the spread of internet from 29 cities in the year 2000 to 1,000 cities, towns and villages by 2002, and the spread of fiber from 40 cities to 400 cities in this period. The first IT policy and implementation strategy was approved under the leadership of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman, then Federal Minister of Science & technology, in August 2000 which laid the foundations of the development of this sector<ref name="moit.gov.pk"/> The internet prices were reduced sharply from $87,000 per month for a 2 MB line to only $3000 per month and later to $90 per month. The mobile telephony boom also occurred under the leadership of Atta-ur-Rahman, and it began by the drastic lowering of prices, bringing in of competition (Ufone) and changing the system so that the person receiving a call was no longer required to pay any charges. A satellite was placed in space (Paksat 1) at a cost of only $4 million. These changes in the IT infra-structure proved invaluable for the Higher education sector. Pakistan Educational Research Network was set up in 2004 through which one of the finest digital libraries was established in universities. In 2002, few university libraries could subscribe to a handful of journals. Today every student in every public sector university has free access to over 20,000 international journals with back volumes and over 60,000 books from 250 international publishers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-9-65633-HEC-%E2%80%93-why-India-felt-threatened |title='HEC – why India felt threatened – Prof Atta-ur-Rahman |date=3 September 2011 |work=The News International, Pakistan |access-date=14 January 2015}}</ref>
As of 2011, Pakistan has over 20 million internet users and is ranked as one of the top countries that have registered a high growth rate in internet penetration. Overall, it has the 15th largest population of internet users in the world. In the fiscal year 2012–2013, the Government of Pakistan aims to spend 4.6 billion [[rupees]] (Rs.) on information technology projects, with emphasis on e-government, human resource and infrastructure development.<ref>[[Information technology in Pakistan]]</ref>
Pakistan's information technology industry has gone through a dramatic change, and the country has taken the lead in adopting some technologies while also setting an example for others in global best practices.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Matters relating to the IT industry are overseen and regulated by the Ministry of Information Technology of the Government of Pakistan. The IT industry is regarded as a successful sector of Pakistan economically, even during the financial crisis.{{clarify|date=June 2015}} The Government of Pakistan has given numerous favors to IT investors in the country since the last decade, that resulted in the development of the IT sector. In the years 2003–2005 the country's IT exports saw a rise of about fifty percent and amounted a total of about US$48.5 million. The World Economic Forum, assessing the development of Information and Communication Technology in the country ranked Pakistan 102nd among 144 countries in the Global Information Technology report of 2012.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

==Higher education reforms==

=== Reform 2002–2009 ===
In 2002, the University Grants Commission was replaced by the Higher Education Commission (HEC), which has an independent chairperson. The HEC was charged with reforming Pakistan's higher education system by introducing better financial incentives, increasing university enrolment and the number of PhD graduates, boosting foreign scholarships and research collaboration and providing all the major universities with state-of-the-art ICT facilities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|title=South Asia. In UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|last1=Nakandala|first1=Dilupa|last2=Malik|first2=Ammar A.|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100129-1|location=Paris|pages=567–597}}</ref>

In a series of reforms in 2002, the HEC instituted major upgrades for scientific laboratories, rehabilitating existing educational facilities, expanding research support and overseeing the development of one of the best digital libraries in the region. Seeking to meet international standards, quality assurance and accreditation process was also established. Some ~95% of students sent abroad for training returned, an unusually high result for a developing country, in response to improved salaries and working conditions at universities as well as bonding and strict follow-up by the commission, Fulbright and others. Within a limited timespan, the HEC provided all universities with free, high-speed Internet access to scientific literature, an upgrade of research equipment accessible across the country and a programme for the creation of new universities of science and technology, including science parks which attracted foreign investors.

==== International praise : Pakistan's Golden Period for Higher Education ====
Since the Higher Education Commission (HEC) reforms have been carried out in 2002, HEC has received praise from international higher education observers. Rahman, founding Chairman of HEC, has received a number of international awards for the transformation of the higher education sector under his leadership.[25] German academic, Dr. Wolfgang Voelter of Tübingen University in Germany over viewed the performance of HEC under the leadership of Rahman and described the reforms in HEC as "A miracle happened." After teaching and visiting in 15 universities of Pakistan, Voelter wrote that the "scenario of education, science and technology in Pakistan has changed dramatically, as never before in the history of the country.[25] The chairperson of the Senate Standing Committee on Education recently announced the first 6 years of HEC under Rahman as "Pakistan's golden period in higher education".<ref name="ReferenceB" />

American academic Prof. Fred M. Hayward has also praised the reform process undertaken by Pakistan, admitting that "since 2002, a number of extraordinary changes have taken place."<ref name="Hayward, Fred M. 2009">Hayward, Fred M. (Winter 2009).Higher Education Transformation in Pakistan: Political & Economic Instability, International Higher Education Quarterly (54), retrieved 20 March 2010</ref> Hayward pointed out that "over the last six years almost 4,000 scholars have participated in Ph.D. programs in Pakistan in which more than 600 students have studied in foreign PhD programs'.<ref name="Hayward, Fred M. 2009" />

The HEC's reforms were also applauded by the United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development (UNCSTD) which reported that the "progress made was breath-taking and has put Pakistan ahead of comparable countries in numerous aspects."<ref name="ReferenceA">Rode, Bernd Michael. Letter from Chairman/European Coordinator of ASEA-UNINET published in DAWN today, DildilpakistanWordpress, retrieved 10 March 2010</ref> The UNCSTD has closely monitored the development in Pakistan in the past years, coming to the conclusion that HEC's program initiated under the leadership of Rahman is a "best-practice" example for developing countries aiming at building their human resources and establishing an innovative, technology-based economy.".<ref name="ReferenceA" /> According to an article published in the leading science journal Nature "Rahman's strong scientific background, enthusiasm for reform and impressive ability to secure cash made him a hit at home and abroad. "It really was an anomaly that we had a person of that stature with that kind of backing,----Atta-ur-Rahman was a force of nature<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

Rahman has won four international awards for the revolutionary changes in the higher education sector brought in the HEC. Nature, a leading science journal, has also written a number of editorials and articles about the transformation brought about in Pakistan in the higher education sector under the HEC. In an article entitled "Pakistan Threat to Indian Science" published in the leading daily newspaper Hindustan Times, India, it has been reported that Professor [[C. N. R. Rao]], Chairman of the Indian Prime Minister's Scientific Advisory Council made a presentation to the Indian Prime Minister at the rapid progress made by Pakistan in the higher education sector under the leadership of Rahman, Chairman, Higher Education Commission. It was reported that as a result of the reforms, "Pakistan may soon join China in giving India serious competition in science". "Science is a lucrative profession in Pakistan. It has tripled the salaries of its scientists in the last few years."<ref>Pak threat to Indian science, Hindustan Times, 23 July 2006, retrieved 19 March 2012</ref>

=== Decentralizing the governance of higher education ===
In 2011–2012, the HEC found itself on the brink of dissolution in the face of the 18th amendment to the Constitution, which devolved several governance functions to provincial governments, including that of higher education. It was only after Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS former Chairman HEC filed a petition before the Supreme Court of Pakistan and the Supreme Court intervened in April 2011, that the commission was spared from being divided up among the four Provinces of Baluchistan, Khyber–Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh.<ref name=":0" />

Notwithstanding this, the HEC's developmental budget – that spent on scholarships and faculty training, etc. – was slashed by 37.8% in 2011–2012, from a peak of R. 22.5 billion (circa US$0.22 billion) in 2009–2010 to Rs 14 billion (circa US$0.14 billion). The higher education sector continues to face an uncertain future, despite the marginal increase in developmental spending wrought by the new administration in Islamabad: Rs. 18.5 billion (circa US$0.18 billion) in the 2013–2014 budget. According to HEC statistics, the organization's budget as a percentage of national GDP has consistently fallen from the 2006–2007 peak of 0.33% to 0.19% in 2011–2012.<ref name=":0" />

In defiance of the Supreme Court ruling of April 2011, the provincial assembly of Sindh Province passed the unprecedented Sindh Higher Commission Act in 2013 creating Pakistan's first provincial higher education commission. In October 2014, Punjab Province followed suit as part of a massive restructuring of its own higher education system.<ref name=":0" />

=== Effect of reforms on student numbers and academic output ===
Despite the turbulence caused by the legal battle being waged since the 2011 constitutional amendment discussed above, the number of degree-awarding institutions continues to grow throughout the country, both in the private and public sectors. University student rolls have continued to rise, from 0.28 million in 2001 to 0.47 million in 2005 and more than 1.2 million in 2014. Just under half of universities are privately owned.<ref name=":0" />

Between 2002 and 2009, the HEC increased the number of PhD graduates to 6 000 per year and in provided up to 11 000 scholarships for study abroad. The number of Pakistani publications recorded in Thomson Reuter's Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded) leapt from 714 to 3 614 over the same period then to 6778 by 2014, and to over 20,000 by 2020. This progress in scientific productivity appears to be due to the momentum generated by the larger numbers of faculty and student scholarships for study abroad, as well as the swelling ranks of PhD graduates. Critics argue that the rapid, massive increase in numbers has compromised quality.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoodboy|first=P.|date=2009|title=Pakistan's higher education system: what went wrong and how to fix it.|journal=Pakistan Development Review|volume=48|issue=4II|pages=581–594|doi=10.30541/v48i4IIpp.581-594|doi-access=free}}</ref> However this claim has been refuted by neutral international experts.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/ihe/article/view/8416 | doi=10.6017/ihe.2009.54.8416 | title=Higher Education Transformation in Pakistan: Political and Economic Instability | year=2015 | last1=Hayward | first1=Fred | journal=International Higher Education | issue=54 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.dawn.com/news/861940/the-golden-period| title = The golden period - DAWN.COM| date = 6 December 2008}}</ref>

==Challenges==

[[File:Pak India Comparison.pdf|thumb|Pak India Comparison of Research publications per 10 million population for period 2000-2018; Pakistan green India blue;Pakistan overtook India in 2017 due to reforms introduced by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS]]
Pakistan has been known for some of its achievements in science and technology such as successful development of media and military technologies and a growing base of [[physician|doctors]] and engineers, as well as its new influx of software engineers who have been contributing to Pakistan's Information Technology industry. Due to present situation in Pakistan, around 3,000 Pakistani doctors emigrate to Western economies in search of suitable employment opportunities and hence contribute intellectually to the health sector of developed countries and at the same time leaving the effects of a [[brain drain]] in Pakistan.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

[[Pervez Hoodbhoy]] published a report on scientific output in Pakistan in which he claimed that research and scientific activities are lower than many other [[developing countries]]<ref>[http://ptonline.aip.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_60/iss_8/49_1.shtml Science and the Islamic world—The quest for rapprochement], [[Pervez Hoodbhoy]], [[Physics Today]]</ref> Hoodbhoy asserted that Pakistan has produced fewer [[paper]]s than neighboring [[Science and technology in the Republic of India|India]].<ref name="Hoodbhoy-ptonline">[http://ptonline.aip.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_60/iss_8/captions/49_1table1.shtml The seven most scientifically productive Islamic countries as of early 2007 compared against a selection of other countries, [[Philadelphia]]-based science information specialist, [[Thomson Scientific]]</ref> The contentions of Hoodbhoy have been questioned for using outdated data.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} The increase in research output from Pakistan has been praised after the establishment of the Higher Education Commission in 2002.<ref name="ip-science.interest.thomsonreuters.com"/><ref>https://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/ihe/article/viewFile/8416/7550 {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ww3.comsats.edu.pk/vcforum2013/Abstracts/Prof.%20Dr.%20Atta-ur-Rahman,%20FRS.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-date=27 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627213818/http://ww3.comsats.edu.pk/vcforum2013/Abstracts/Prof.%20Dr.%20Atta-ur-Rahman%2C%20FRS.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> This is borne out by the graphical comparison between Pakistan and India shown on the right which shows that Pakistan (green) was 400% behind India (blue) in research publications per 10 million population in year 2000 but overtook India in 2017 and by 2018, it was about 20% ahead of India according to Web of Science data.

In a report published by Thomson Reuters in 2016, it has been concluded that the rate of increase of highly cited papers in international journals from Pakistan is higher than that from Brazil, Russia, India or China.<ref name="ip-science.interest.thomsonreuters.com"/>

Pakistan’s public-sector infrastructure for science and technology is complemented by academic institutions and the strategic and defence sectors. Over the years, these three components have vied for political patronage and societal recognition, leading to duplication and competition between the different bodies.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Osama|first1=Athar|title=South Asia. In: UNESCO Science Report: the Race Against Time for Smarter Development|last2=Sha|first2=Sohan Prasad|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Seetha I.|publisher=UNESCO Publishing|year=2021|pages=574–603}}</ref>

==Scientific research institutions (SRI)==
{{See also|List of research institutes in Pakistan}}
{{See also|List of research institutes in Pakistan}}
[[File:HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry.png|thumb|HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry University of Karachi, is integral part of Internarional Center for Chemical and Biological sciences, the regional UNESCO Center of Excellence]]
[[File:HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry.png|thumb|HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry University of Karachi, is integral part of International Center for Chemical and Biological sciences, the regional UNESCO Center of Excellence]]
[[File:Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research.pdf|thumb|Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research, University of Karachi, is integral part of Internarional Center for Chemical and Biological sciences, the regional UNESCO Center of Excellence]]
[[File:National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), Faisalabad, Pakistan.jpg|thumbnail|National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faisalabad, Pakistan.]]
A large part of research is conducted by science research institutes with semi-controlled by the Government.
A large part of research is conducted by science research institutes with semi-controlled by the Government.
*[[International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences]]
*[[International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences]]
*[[National Centre for Physics]]
*[[Hussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry|H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry]]
*[[Dr. Panjwani Centre for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research]]
*[[School of Biological Sciences, Punjab University]]
*[[National Center for Physics]]
*[[National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering]]
*[[National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering]]
*[[Abdus Salam School of Mathematical Sciences]]
*[[Abdus Salam School of Mathematical Sciences]]
*[[Centre for High Energy Physics (University of the Punjab)|PU Centre for High Energy Physics]]
*[[Centre for High Energy Physics|PU Centre for High Energy Physics]]
*[[Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, NUST]]<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.nust.edu.pk/INSTITUTIONS/Schools/ASAB/Pages/default.aspx | title=Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences (ASAB)-National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)}}</ref>
*[[Institute of Space and Planetary Astrophysics]]
*[[Institute of Space and Planetary Astrophysics]]
*[[National Engineering and Scientific Commission]]
*[[National Engineering & Scientific Commission|National Engineering and Scientific Commission]]
*[[Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology]]
*[[Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology|Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology]]
*[[Institute of Space Technology]]
*[[Institute of Space Technology]]
*[[Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research|Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]]
*[[Pakistan Council of Scientific & Industrial Research|Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]]
*[[Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology]]
*[[Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology]]
*[[Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture]]
*[[Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture]]
*[[Pakistan Bureau of Statistics]]
*[[Technology Resource Mobilization Unit]]
[[File:Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research.pdf|thumb|Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research, University of Karachi, is integral part of International Center for Chemical and Biological sciences, the regional UNESCO Center of Excellence|228x228px]]
*[[Federal Bureau of Statistics]]
*[[Statistics Division of the Government of Pakistan|Mathematics Statistical Division]]


==Science community of Pakistan==
=== Science community of Pakistan ===
*[[Pakistan Academy of Sciences]]

*[[Pakistan Association for the Advancement of Science]]
*[[NUST Science Society]]
*[[National University of Sciences & Technology|NUST Science Society]]
*[[Pakistan Mathematical Society]]
*[[Pakistan Mathematical Society]]
*[[Pakistan Agricultural Research Council]]
*[[Pakistan Agricultural Research Council]]
*[[Pakistan Academy of Sciences]]
*[[Pakistan Institute of Physics]]
*[[Pakistan Institute of Physics]]
*[[Pakistan Amateur Astronomers Society|Pakistan Astrophysicist Society]]
*[[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]]
*[[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]]
*[[Nuclear power in Pakistan|Pakistan Atomic Scientists Society]]
*[[Nuclear power in Pakistan|Pakistan Atomic Scientists Society]]
*[[Pakistan Nuclear Society]]
*[[Pakistan Nuclear Society]]
*[[National ICT R&D Fund (Pakistan)|National Information and Communication Technologies Research and Development Funds]]
*[[Pakistan Science Foundation]]
*[[Pakistan Science Foundation]]
*[[Survey of Pakistan|Department of Pakistan Survey]]
*[[Survey of Pakistan]]
*[[Geological Survey of Pakistan|Pakistan Geo-engineering and Geological Survey]]
*[[Geological Survey of Pakistan]]
*Pakistan Cave Research & Caving Federation{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}
*[[Pakistan Physics Society|Pakistan Physical Society]]
*[[Pakistan Physics Society|Pakistan Physical Society]]
*Pakistan Optical Society
*[[Khwarizmi Science Society]]
*[[Khwarizmi Science Society]]
*[[Pakistan science club]]
*[[Pakistan Science Club]]
*[[Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology]]
*[[Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology]]
*[[Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology]]
*[[Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology|Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology]]
==National prizes==
*[[Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology]]

*[[National Institute of Food Science and Technology]]
The most prestigious government prize awarded for achievements in science and technology is ''[[Nishan-e-Imtiaz]]'' (or in English Order of Excellence). While [[Hilal-i-Imtiaz]], [[Pride of Performance]], [[Sitara-i-Imtiaz]], and [[Tamgha-e-Imtiaz]] occupies a unique role and importance in Pakistan's civil society.
*[[USTAD Institute of Science & Technology Abbottabad]]
*[[Royal Institute of Science & Technology Karachi]]
*[[Gandhara Institute of Science & Technology]]
*[[Sukkur Institute of Science & Technology]]
*[[Bright Institute of Science and technology - Peshawar]]
*[[Pakistan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology]]


==See also==
==See also==
Line 250: Line 111:
*[[List of Pakistani scientists]]
*[[List of Pakistani scientists]]
*[[Economy of Pakistan]]
*[[Economy of Pakistan]]
*[[Nergis Mavalvala]]


==Sources==
==Sources==
Line 276: Line 136:


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{reflist}}


==External links==
==External links==
*[http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-6-248634-Pakistan-to-introduce-technology-in-four-Muslim-countries Pakistan to introduce technology in four Muslim countries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140507042037/http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-6-248634-Pakistan-to-introduce-technology-in-four-Muslim-countries |date=7 May 2014 }}
*[http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-6-248634-Pakistan-to-introduce-technology-in-four-Muslim-countries Pakistan to introduce technology in four Muslim countries]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140507042037/http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-6-248634-Pakistan-to-introduce-technology-in-four-Muslim-countries |date=7 May 2014 }}.
*[http://review.primebne.com.pk/science-economy-and-peace-a-study-focusing-pakistan/ Science, Economy and Peace: A study focusing Pakistan]
*[http://review.primebne.com.pk/science-economy-and-peace-a-study-focusing-pakistan/ Science, Economy and Peace: A study focusing Pakistan]


Latest revision as of 13:39, 30 December 2024

Abdus Salam was the world's second scientist from a Muslim country to win a Nobel Prize.

Science and technology have been pivotal in Pakistan's development since its inception. The country boasts a large pool of scientists, engineers, doctors, and technicians actively contributing to these fields.

Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan's first Prime Minister, initiated reforms to improve higher education and scientific research. However, significant growth in science occurred after the establishment of the Higher Education Commission in 2002, which supported science initiatives and sponsored the Pakistan Academy of Sciences.[1]

Pakistan has made significant contributions in various scientific fields, with chemistry being particularly strong. The International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences is a leading institution in this area, offering one of the largest postgraduate research programs in the country. Other notable fields include physics, material science, metallurgy, biology, and mathematics.

Pakistani scientists have achieved international acclaim in mathematics and several branches of physical science. Professor Abdus Salam, a theoretical physicist, won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979, while Professor Atta-ur-Rahman, an organic chemist, was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 2006.

In terms of technology, Pakistan has made significant strides in nuclear physics and explosives engineering, primarily driven by security concerns. The country is also involved in space exploration, with a focus on military applications. Pakistan is an associate member of CERN, a prestigious international research organization.[2]

Overview

Main articles: History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent, History of measurement systems in Pakistan, and List of Pakistani scientists

The Scientific and Technological Research Division (S&TR) was established in 1964 to coordinate and implement national science and technology policy, promote research, and facilitate the utilization of research results and scientific and technological manpower.

Since 1972, the Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) has been the national focal point for the Government of Pakistan, planning and coordinating scientific and technological programs aligned with the national agenda. Its goal is to build a strong and sustainable research base for socio-economic development. The Ministry promotes technological advancements in industrial development, renewable energy, and rural development to boost growth and improve living standards. Its main focus is on enhancing Pakistan's technological skills, increasing human resources to combat brain drain, and integrating technological infrastructure to strengthen institutions, improve governance of the S&TR, and support local innovation systems.

Golden Age

Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS receiving UNESCO Science Prize at World Congress on Science in Budapest Hungary (1999)

The 1960s and 1970s marked the initial rise of Pakistan's science, which gained international recognition in various science communities. During this period, scientists contributed significantly to the fields of Natural Product Chemistry, theoretical, particle, mathematical, and nuclear physics, as well as other major and subfields of Chemistry and Physics. The research was spearheaded by scientists such as Riazuddin, Ishfaq Ahmad, Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, Atta-ur-Rahman and Samar Mubarakmand.[3]

The major growth in scientific output occurred after the establishment of the Higher Education Commission, accompanied by a 60-fold increase in funding for science.[4]

The real growth of science in Pakistan occurred under the leadership of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman during 2000–2008 when he was the Federal Minister of Science & Technology and later Chairman of the Higher Education Commission (HEC). The chairperson of the Senate Standing Committee on Education hailed the first six years of HEC under Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman as "Pakistan's golden period."[4]

Dr. Abdus Salam, the first Pakistani winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, was the father of physics research in Pakistan. Under his watchful direction, mathematicians and physicists tackled the greatest and outstanding problems in physics and mathematics. From 1960 to 1974, Salam led the research at its peak, prompting international recognition of Pakistani mathematicians and physicists. This allowed them to conduct their research at CERN.[3]  

Salam and his students revolutionized particle and theoretical physics, becoming modern pioneers in the field. Pure research in Quantum electrodynamics, Quantum field theory, protonic decay, and other major fields of physics was pioneered by Pakistani scientists. With the establishment of nuclear and neutron institutes, Pakistan's mathematicians introduced complex mathematical applications to study and examine the behaviors of elements during the fission process. Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, Atta-ur-Rahman and Iqbal Choudhary are the pioneering personalities for studying the isolation of unique chemical compounds from the Neem (Azadirachta indica), Rauvolfia, periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), (Buxus papillosa) and various other plants.

State Control

Most research programs in Pakistan take place not only at universities but also at specialized research facilities and institutes. Some of these institutes operate under the Ministry of Science and Technology, which oversees scientific development, along with the Pakistan Academy of Sciences and various specialized institutes. The Pakistan Academy of Sciences, established in 1953 and relocated to Islamabad in 1964, focuses primarily on the natural sciences, especially physics. From 1947 to 1971, research was conducted independently, with little government influence.[5]

The High Tension Laboratories (HTL) at Government College University, Lahore, were founded by R. M. Chaudhry with British government funding in the 1950s. In 1967, Professor Abdus Salam established the Institute of Theoretical Physics at Quaid-e-Azam University, along with the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology and the Centre for Nuclear Studies, with support from European countries. However, after Zulfikar Ali Bhutto became president in 1972, he centralized scientific research under his socialist reforms and established the Ministry of Science, appointing Ishrat Hussain Usmani as its head.[5][6]

During the 1950s and 1960s, both West and East Pakistan had their own academies of science, with East Pakistan dependent on funding from the West. Medical research is managed by the Health Ministry, agricultural research by the Agriculture Ministry, and environmental sciences by the Environment Ministry.[6][7]

Following the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War, Bhutto increased scientific funding by over 200%, primarily for military research. With Dr. Salam’s guidance, Bhutto recruited Pakistani scientists abroad to develop the atomic bomb. This program was initially led by Dr. Salam and later by Dr. Munir Ahmad Khan until 1991. Zia-ul-Haq, who took power in the 1980s, enforced pseudoscience in education and promoted Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan to export sensitive military technologies to Libya, Iran, and North Korea. Due to government control, much of Pakistan’s academic research remains classified and unknown to the international scientific community. There have been numerous failed attempts by foreign powers, including Libya and the CIA, to infiltrate Pakistan’s research facilities.[8]

In 2002, the University Grants Commission was replaced by the Higher Education Commission (HEC), tasked with reforming higher education by improving financial incentives, increasing university enrollment and PhD graduates, enhancing foreign scholarships and research collaborations, and providing state-of-the-art ICT facilities. The HEC also upgraded scientific laboratories, rehabilitated educational facilities, and developed a regional digital library. The HEC also provided free high-speed internet access to scientific literature and launched initiatives to create new universities and science parks.

Science policy

The Federal Ministry of Science and Technology has overseen Pakistan's science and technology sector since 1972. In 2012, the government recognized innovation as a long-term economic growth strategy by formulating the National Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy. Key focuses of the policy include:

  • Human resource development
  • Endogenous technology development
  • Technology transfer
  • International cooperation in R&D

By 2014, studies were completed in eleven areas, including agriculture, energy, ICT, and health. After the 2013 government change Ministry of Science and Technology issued the draft National Science, Technology, and Innovation Strategy 2014-2018 . This strategy was integrated into Vision 2025, Pakistan's long-term development plan, with human development as its central pillar.[9]

Achievements

Main article: List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries

In 1961, Pakistan made international achievements by becoming the third Asian country and the tenth in the world to launch the Rehbar-I—a solid fuel expendable rocket—from Sonmani Spaceport. This rocket was developed and launched under the leadership of Dr. W. J. M. Turowicz, a Polish-Pakistani scientist and project director. Following this launch, the program continued to conduct flights until the 1970s.[10]

A significant breakthrough occurred in 1979 when the Nobel Prize Committee awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics to Abdus Salam for formulating the electroweak theory, which unifies the weak nuclear force and electromagnetic force. In 1990, the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) launched Pakistan's first locally designed communication satellite, Badr-1, from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center (XLSC) in the People's Republic of China. With this launch, Pakistan became the first Muslim-majority country to develop an artificial robotic satellite and the second South Asian state to launch a satellite, after India.[11]

One of the most widely reported achievements occurred in 1998 when Pakistan joined the nuclear club. In response to India's nuclear tests on May 11 and May 13, 1998, under the codename Operation Shakti at the Pokhran Test Range (PTR), the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) conducted five simultaneous nuclear tests at the Chagai Hills on May 28, 1998, under the codename Chagai-I, led by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. PAEC conducted another test in the Kharan Desert, known as Chagai-II, resulting in six tests within a week. With these tests, Pakistan became the seventh nuclear power in the world and the only Muslim-majority country to have mastered nuclear technology. On August 13, 2011, SUPARCO launched its first indigenously developed geosynchronous satellite, Paksat-1R, also from XLSC in China.[11]

In 2006, Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (London), becoming the first scientist from the Muslim world to receive this honor for his research conducted in an Islamic country. He made significant contributions to the development of natural product chemistry, and several international journals have published special issues in recognition of his work.[12]

A landmark study by Thomson Reuters highlighted the impact of the reforms introduced by Atta-ur-Rahman, revealing that the rate of growth of highly cited papers from Pakistan over the past decade was greater than that of Brazil, Russia, India, or China.[13]

Pakistan was ranked 91st in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.[14]

National Institutions

Scientific research

See also: List of research institutes in Pakistan
HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry University of Karachi, is integral part of International Center for Chemical and Biological sciences, the regional UNESCO Center of Excellence

A large part of research is conducted by science research institutes with semi-controlled by the Government.

Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research, University of Karachi, is integral part of International Center for Chemical and Biological sciences, the regional UNESCO Center of Excellence

Science community of Pakistan

National prizes

The most prestigious government prize awarded for achievements in science and technology is Nishan-e-Imtiaz (or in English Order of Excellence). While Hilal-i-Imtiaz, Pride of Performance, Sitara-i-Imtiaz, and Tamgha-e-Imtiaz occupies a unique role and importance in Pakistan's civil society.

See also

Sources

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030​, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing.

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: the Race Against Time for Smarter Development​, 574–603, UNESCO Publishing.

Further reading

  • "Rank of Pakistan in Technology; Amazing Facts And Figures (2021)". Protechrise.

References

  1. ^ http://www.hec.gov.pk/english/Pages/Home.aspx
  2. ^ "Pakistan officially becomes an associate member of CERN". The Express Tribune. 31 July 2015.
  3. ^ a b Riazuddin (21 November 1998). "Physics in Pakistan". ICTP. Retrieved 5 May 2020.
  4. ^ a b "Eloqua - Error Information" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 October 2019. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
  5. ^ a b MoST, Ministry of Science and Technology. "Ministry of Science and Technology". Government of Pakistan. Directorate for Electronic Government (DEG)and the Directorate for the Scientific and Technological Research Division (STRD).
  6. ^ a b Ahmad, Hameed Ahmad (November 2004). "Education, Science and Technology in Developing Countries: Some Thoughts and Recollection: §Higher Education in Pakistan: Current and Future Scenarios" (PDF). COMSATS Journal of Science. 1 (1): 212. Retrieved 5 May 2020.
  7. ^ (moenv), Ministry of Environment. "Ministry of Environment". Electronic Government Directorate and Directorate for the Environmental Research and Applied Science (ERAS).
  8. ^ Brigadier-General Syed A. I. Tirmazi (1985). Profiles of Intelligence. Combined Printers. Library of Congress Catalogue No. 95-930455.
  9. ^ Nakandala, Dilupa; Malik, Ammar A. (2015). South Asia. In UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (PDF). Paris: UNESCO. pp. 567–597. ISBN 978-92-3-100129-1.
  10. ^ MILLARD, W. (16 August 1970). "Performance and flight characteristics of the Sandhawk family of rocket systems". 2nd Sounding Rocket Technology Conference. Reston, Virigina: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.1970-1398.
  11. ^ a b Mehmud, PhD, Salim; P. Proctor (20 March 2000). "Pakistan and Satellite Communication Systems". Salim Mehmud, former Chairman of the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission and technical director of the Hatf-I project. Federation of American Scientists (FAS). Retrieved 15 August 2011.
  12. ^ "Fellow Detail Page | Royal Society". royalsociety.org.
  13. ^ "Pakistan vs BRIC countries – scientific influence and citation impact report".
  14. ^ World Intellectual Property Organization (2024). Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship. Geneva. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 22 October 2024. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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