Editing Sigmund Freud

{{Short description|Founder of psychoanalysis (1856–1939)}}
{{Redirect-multi|2|Freud|Freudian||Freudian slip|and|Freud (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Sigmund Freud
| image             = Sigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt (cropped).jpg
| alt               = Sigmund Freud
| caption           = Freud, {{Circa|1921}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Halberstadt |first=Max |date=c. 1921 |title=Sigmund Freud, half-length portrait, facing left, holding cigar in right hand |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/98514770/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228054049/https://www.loc.gov/item/98514770/ |archive-date=28 December 2017 |access-date=8 June 2017 |website=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref>
| birth_name        = Sigismund Schlomo Freud
| birth_date        = {{birth date|1856|5|6|df=y}}
| birth_place       = [[Freiberg in Mähren]], [[Moravia]], [[Austrian Empire]] (now [[Czech Republic]])
| death_date        = {{death date and age|1939|9|23|1856|5|6|df=y}}
| death_place       = [[Hampstead]], London, England
| resting_place     = [[Freud Corner (Golders Green Crematorium)|Freud Corner]], London, UK
| fields            = {{hlist|[[Neurology]]|[[psychotherapy]]|[[psychoanalysis]]}}
| workplaces        = {{Plainlist|
* {{nowrap|[[University of Vienna]]}}
* [[International Psychoanalytical Association]]
}}
| education         = [[University of Vienna]] ([[Doctor of medicine|MD]])
| academic_advisors = {{Plainlist|
* {{nowrap|[[Franz Brentano]]}}
* {{nowrap|[[Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke|Ernst Brücke]]}}
* {{nowrap|[[Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Claus|Carl Claus]]}}
}}
| known_for         = [[Psychoanalysis]], including the [[Freud's psychoanalytic theories|theories]] of [[id, ego and super-ego]], [[oedipus complex]], [[Repression (psychology)|repression]], [[defence mechanism]], [[Psychosexual development|stages of psychosexual development]]
| awards            = [[Goethe Prize]] (1930)
| father            = [[Jacob Freud]]
| mother            = [[Amalia Freud|Amalia Nathanson]]
| spouse            = {{marriage|[[Martha Bernays]]|1886}}
| children          = 6, including [[Ernst L. Freud|Ernst]] and [[Anna Freud|Anna]]
| signature         = FreudSignature.svg
}}
'''Sigmund Freud''' ({{IPAc-en|f|r|ɔɪ|d}} {{Respell|FROYD}};<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/freud "Freud"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223181459/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Freud |date=23 December 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{IPA|de|ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfrɔʏt|lang}}; born '''Sigismund Schlomo Freud'''; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian [[neurologist]] and the founder of [[psychoanalysis]], a clinical method for evaluating and treating [[psychopathology|pathologies]] seen as originating from conflicts in the [[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]], through dialogue between patient and psychoanalyst,<ref name=Systems/> and the distinctive theory of mind and human agency derived from it.<ref>Pick, Daniel (2015). ''Psychoanalysis: A Very Short Introduction''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition, p. 3.</ref>

Freud was born to [[Galician Jews|Galician Jewish]] parents in the [[Moravia]]n town of [[Příbor|Freiberg]], in the [[Austrian Empire]]. He qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the [[University of Vienna]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Noel Sheehy |title=Fifty Key Thinkers in Psychology |last2=Alexandra Forsythe |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-134-70493-4 |chapter=Sigmund Freud}}</ref><ref>Kandel, Eric R. (2012). ''The Age of Insight: The Quest to Understand the Unconscious in Art, Mind and Brain, from Vienna 1900 to the Present'', pp. 45–46. New York: Random House.</ref> Upon completing his [[habilitation]] in 1885, he was appointed a [[docent]] in [[neuropathology]] and became an affiliated professor in 1902.<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 136–37.</ref> Freud lived and worked in [[Vienna]] having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. Following the [[Anschluss|German annexation of Austria]] in March 1938, Freud left Austria to escape [[Nazi]] persecution. He died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939.

In founding [[psychoanalysis]], Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of [[free association (psychology)|free association]] and discovered [[transference]], establishing its central role in the analytic process. Freud's redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the [[Oedipus complex]] as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory.<ref>Jones, Ernest (1949). ''What is Psychoanalysis?'', p. 47. London: Allen & Unwin.</ref> His analysis of [[dream]]s as wish-fulfilments provided him with models for the clinical analysis of symptom formation and the underlying mechanisms of [[Repression (psychology)|repression]]. On this basis, Freud elaborated his theory of the [[#The unconscious|unconscious]] and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising [[id, ego and super-ego]].<ref name=mannoni>Mannoni, Octave (2015) [1971]. ''Freud: The Theory of the Unconscious'', pp. 49–51, 146–47, 152–54. London: Verso.</ref> Freud postulated the existence of [[libido]], sexualised energy with which mental processes and structures are invested and which generates erotic attachments, and a [[death drive]], the source of compulsive repetition, hate, aggression, and [[Neurosis|neurotic]] guilt.<ref name=mannoni/> In his later work, Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture.

Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within [[psychology]], [[psychiatry]], [[psychotherapy]], and across the [[humanities]]. It thus continues to generate extensive and highly contested debate concerning its therapeutic efficacy, its scientific status, and whether it advances or hinders the [[feminist]] cause.<ref>For its efficacy and the influence of psychoanalysis on psychiatry and psychotherapy, see ''The Challenge to Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy'', [http://americanmentalhealthfoundation.org/a.php?id=24 Chapter 9, Psychoanalysis and Psychiatry: A Changing Relationship] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606094737/http://americanmentalhealthfoundation.org/a.php?id=24 |date=6 June 2009 }} by [[Robert Michels (physician)|Robert Michels]], 1999 and Tom Burns ''Our Necessary Shadow: The Nature and Meaning of Psychiatry'' London: Allen Lane 2013 pp. 96–97.
* For the influence on psychology, see [http://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-13/edition-12 ''The Psychologist'', December 2000] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231004848/http://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-13/edition-12 |date=31 December 2014 }}
* For the influence of psychoanalysis in the humanities, see J. Forrester ''The Seductions of Psychoanalysis'' Cambridge University Press 1990, pp. 2–3.
* For the debate on efficacy, see Fisher, S. and Greenberg, R.P., ''Freud Scientifically Reappraised: Testing the Theories and Therapy'', New York: John Wiley, 1996, pp. 193–217
* For the debate on the scientific status of psychoanalysis see {{Cite book |last=Stevens |first=Richard |title=Freud and Psychoanalysis |publisher=Open University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-335-10180-1 |location=Milton Keynes |pages=91–116}}, Gay (2006) p. 745, and {{Cite journal | doi=10.1192/bji.2017.4| pmid=29953128| pmc=6020924|title = The scientific standing of psychoanalysis| journal=BJPsych International| volume=15| issue=1| pages=5–8|year = 2018|last1 = Solms|first1 = Mark|issn=2056-4740}}
* For the debate on psychoanalysis and feminism, see Appignanesi, Lisa & Forrester, John. ''Freud's Women''. London: Penguin Books, 1992, pp. 455–74.</ref> Nonetheless, Freud's work has suffused contemporary [[Western thought]] and popular culture. {{nowrap|[[W. H. Auden]]'s}} 1940 poetic tribute to Freud describes him as having created "a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives".<ref>[https://poets.org/poem/memory-sigmund-freud "In Memory of Sigmund Freud"]</ref>

==Biography==

=== Early life and education ===
[[File:Pribor - Birthplace of Sigmund Freud.jpg|right|thumb|alt=photograph|Freud's birthplace, a rented room in a locksmith's house, [[Příbor|Freiberg]], [[Austrian Empire]] ([[Příbor]], [[Czech Republic]])]]
[[File:AmaliaFreud.jpg|right|thumb|alt=photograph|upright|Freud (aged 16) and his mother, [[Amalia Freud|Amalia]], in 1872]]

Sigmund Freud was born to [[Ashkenazi Jewish]] parents in the [[Moravia]]n town of [[Příbor|Freiberg]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Digitized Birth Records of Freiberg (Zemský archiv v Opavě) |url=https://digi.archives.cz/da/permalink?xid=be85d01a-f13c-102f-8255-0050568c0263&scan=3196614d700349279f6de3a8330b224a |access-date=18 July 2021 |website=digi.archives.cz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sigmund Freud &#124; Biography, Theories, Works, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sigmund-Freud |website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=2 May 2023 }}</ref> in the [[Austrian Empire]] (in Czech Příbor, now [[Czech Republic]]), the first of eight children.<ref name="Gresser">Gresser 1994, p. 225.</ref> Both of his parents were from [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]]. His father, [[Jacob Freud|Jakob Freud]], a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakob's family were [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]] and, although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition, he came to be known for his [[Torah study]]. He and Freud's mother, [[Amalia Freud|Amalia Nathansohn]], who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi [[Isaac Noah Mannheimer]] on 29 July 1855.<ref name="Emanuel">{{Cite book |last=Emanuel Rice |title=Freud and Moses: The Long Journey Home |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-7914-0453-9 |page=55}}</ref> They were struggling financially and living in a rented room, in a locksmith's house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born.<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 4–8; Clark 1980, p. 4.
* For Jakob's Torah study, see [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&pg=PA233 Meissner 1993, p. 233].
* For the date of the marriage, see [https://books.google.com/books?id=JhbDnT74kWEC&pg=PA55 Rice 1990, p. 55].</ref> He was born with a [[caul]], which his mother saw as a positive [[omen]] for the boy's future.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=<!-- field: -->Deborah P. Margolis, M.A.<!-- field: --> |url=http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=MPSA.014.0037A |title=Margolis 1989 |journal=Mod. Psychoanal |pages=37–56 |access-date=17 January 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223112728/http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=MPSA.014.0037A |archive-date=23 February 2014|year=1989}}</ref>

In 1859, the [[Freud family]] left Freiberg. Freud's half-brothers immigrated to [[Manchester]], England, parting him from the "inseparable" playmate of his early childhood, Emanuel's son, John.<ref>Jones, Ernest (1964) ''Sigmund Freud: Life and Work.'' Edited and abridged by Lionel Trilling and Stephen Marcus. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books p. 37.</ref> Jakob Freud took his wife and two children (Freud's sister, Anna, was born in 1858; a brother, Julius born in 1857, had died in infancy) firstly to [[Leipzig]] and then in 1860 to [[Vienna]] where four sisters and a brother were born: Rosa (b. 1860), Marie (b. 1861), Adolfine (b. 1862), Paula (b. 1864), Alexander (b. 1866). In 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the {{lang|de|Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium}}, a prominent high school. He proved to be an outstanding pupil and graduated from the [[Matura]] in 1873 with honors. He loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]].<ref>Hothersall 2004, p. 276.</ref>

Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17. He had planned to study law, but joined the medical faculty at the university, where his studies included philosophy under [[Franz Brentano]], physiology under [[Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke|Ernst Brücke]], and zoology under [[Darwinist]] professor [[Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Claus|Carl Claus]].<ref>Hothersall 1995<!--page number?--></ref> In 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Claus's zoological research station in [[Trieste]], dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs.<ref>See "[[Eel life history#Past studies of eels|past studies of eels]]" and references therein.</ref> In 1877, Freud moved to Ernst Brücke's physiology laboratory where he spent six years comparing the brains of humans with those of other vertebrates such as frogs, [[lampreys]] as well as also invertebrates, for example [[crayfish]]. His research work on the biology of nervous tissue proved seminal for the subsequent discovery of the [[neuron]] in the 1890s.<ref>{{cite news |last=Costandi |first=Mo |title=Freud was a pioneering neuroscientist |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/neurophilosophy/2014/mar/10/neuroscience-history-science |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=10 March 2014 |access-date=16 May 2018}}<br>In this period he published three papers:
* {{cite book |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=Über den Ursprung der hinteren Nervenwurzeln im Rückenmark von Ammocoetes (Petromyzon Planeri) |publisher=na |trans-title=On the Origin of the Posterior Nerve Roots in the Spinal Cord of [[Ammocoetes]] ([[Petromyzon planeri|Petromyzon Planeri]]) |url=https://archive.org/details/b3047467x |year=1877|language=de}}
* {{cite book |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=Über Spinalganglien und Rückenmark des Petromyzon |trans-title=On the Spinal Ganglia and Spinal Cord of [[Petromyzon]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c9I7mgEACAAJ |year=1878|language=de}}
* {{cite journal |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=A New Histological Method for the Study of Nerve-Tracts in the Brain and Spinal Cord |journal=[[Brain (journal)|Brain]] |date=April 1884 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=86–88 |doi=10.1093/brain/7.1.86|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1935710 }}
For a more in-depth analysis: {{cite book |last1=Gamwell |first1=Lynn|author1-link= Lynn Gamwell |last2=Solms |first2=Mark |author-link2=Mark Solms |title=From Neurology to Psychoanalysis |url=https://www.curezone.org/upload/PDF/From_NEUROLOGY_to_PSYCHOANALYSIS_by_Sigmund_Freud.pdf |year=2006 |publisher=[[Binghamton University Art Museum]] |location=[[State University of New York]] |pages=29–33, 37–39|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830064321/https://www.curezone.org/upload/PDF/From_NEUROLOGY_to_PSYCHOANALYSIS_by_Sigmund_Freud.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> Freud's research work was interrupted in 1879 by the obligation to undertake a year's compulsory military service. The lengthy downtimes enabled him to complete a commission to translate four essays from [[John Stuart Mill]]'s collected works.<ref>Gay 2006 p. 36.</ref> He graduated with an [[Doctor of medicine|MD]] in March 1881.<ref>[[Frank Sulloway|Sulloway]] 1992 [1979], p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=B7XcblnI620C&pg=PA22 22].</ref>

===Early career and marriage===
In 1882 Freud began his medical career at [[Vienna General Hospital]]. His research work in cerebral anatomy led to the publication in 1884 of an influential paper on the palliative effects of cocaine, and his work on [[aphasia]] would form the basis of his first book ''On Aphasia: A Critical Study'', published in 1891.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wallesch |first=Claus |year=2004 |title=History of Aphasia Freud as an aphasiologist |journal=Aphasiology |volume=18 |issue=April |pages=389–399 |doi=10.1080/02687030344000599 |s2cid=144976195}}</ref> Over a three-year period, Freud worked in various departments of the hospital. His time spent in [[Theodor Meynert]]'s [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] clinic and as a [[locum]] in a local asylum led to an increased interest in clinical work. His substantial body of published research led to his appointment as a university lecturer or [[docent]] in [[neuropathology]] in 1885, a non-salaried post but one which entitled him to give lectures at the University of Vienna.<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 42–47.</ref>

In 1886 Freud resigned his hospital post and entered private practice specializing in "nervous disorders". The same year he married [[Martha Bernays]], the granddaughter of [[Isaac Bernays]], a chief rabbi in Hamburg. Freud was, as an [[Atheism|atheist]], dismayed at the requirement in Austria for a Jewish religious ceremony and briefly considered, before dismissing, the prospect of joining the Protestant 'Confession' to avoid one.<ref>Jones, Ernest.&nbsp;''Sigmund Freud: Life and Work'', Vol. 1. London: Hogarth Press, 1953, p. 183, see also Vol. 2 pp. 19–20.</ref> A civil ceremony for Bernays and Freud took place on 13 September and a religious ceremony took place the following day, with Freud having been hastily tutored in the Hebrew prayers.<ref>Roudinesco, Elizabeth (2016). ''Freud: In His Time and Ours''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 48–49.</ref> The Freuds had six children: Mathilde (b. 1887), Jean-Martin (b. 1889), Oliver (b. 1891), [[Ernst L. Freud|Ernst]] (b. 1892), Sophie (b. 1893), and [[Anna Freud|Anna]] (b. 1895). From 1891 until they left Vienna in 1938, Freud and his family lived in an apartment at [[Sigmund Freud Museum (Vienna)|Berggasse 19]], near [[Innere Stadt]].

On 8 December 1897 Freud was initiated into the German Jewish cultural association [[B'nai B'rith]], to which he remained linked for all his life. Freud gave a speech on the interpretation of dreams, which had an enthusiastic reception. It anticipated the [[The Interpretation of Dreams|book of the same name]], which was published for the first time two years later.<ref>''Sigmund Freud and the B'Nai B'Rith''. {{doi|10.1177/000306517902700209}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Elisabetta Cicciola (Historical Archive of the [[Grand Orient of Italy]] |publisher=[[Leo Samuele Olschki|Leo Olschki]]|journal=[[Physis (journal)|Physis-Rivista internazionale di storia della scienza]]|volume=LIV|year=2019|number=Fasc.1–2|title=Freud e l' ordine del B'nai B'rith: un' appartenenza lunga quarant'anni|series=Nuova serie|language=it|url=https://www.academia.edu/44614103}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bnaibrith.org/saving-sigmund-freud/|title=Saving Sigmund Freud {{!}} Interview with Former Newsweek Editor Andrew Nagorski|date=November 10, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/sigmund-freud-judaic-treasures|title=The Starry Sky & the Still Small Voice: Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939)|publisher=[[Jewish Virtual Library]]}}</ref>

[[File:Wien - Wohnhaus Sigmund Freuds.JPG|thumb|alt=photograph|Freud's home at [[Sigmund Freud Museum (Vienna)|Berggasse 19]], Vienna]]
In 1896, Minna Bernays, Martha Freud's sister, became a permanent member of the Freud household after the death of her fiancé. The close relationship she formed with Freud led to rumours, started by [[Carl Jung]], of an affair. The discovery of a Swiss hotel guest-book entry for 13 August 1898, signed by Freud whilst travelling with his sister-in-law, has been presented as evidence of the affair.<ref>[[Peter Swales (historian)|Peter J. Swales]], "Freud, Minna Bernays, and the Conquest of Rome: New Light on the Origins of Psychoanalysis", ''The New American Review'', Spring/Summer 1982, pp. 1–23, which makes a case that Freud impregnated Minna and arranged an abortion for her.
* see Gay 2006, pp. 76, 752–53 for a sceptical rejoinder to Swales.
* for the discovery of the hotel log see {{Cite news |last=Blumenthal |first=Ralph |date=24 December 2006 |title=Hotel log hints at desire that Freud didn't repress – Europe – International Herald Tribune |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/24/world/europe/24iht-web.1224freud.3998915.html |url-status=live |access-date=4 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613082851/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/24/world/europe/24iht-web.1224freud.3998915.html?pagewanted=all |archive-date=13 June 2017}}
* see also 'Minna Bernays as "Mrs. Freud": What Sort of Relationship Did Sigmund Freud Have with His Sister-in-Law?' by Franz Maciejewski and Jeremy Gaines, ''American Imago'', Volume 65, Number 1, Spring 2008, pp. 5–21.</ref>

Freud began [[tobacco smoking|smoking tobacco]] at age 24; initially a cigarette smoker, he became a cigar smoker.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eiland |first=Murray |date=2014 |title=Cigar Box Heraldry |url=https://www.academia.edu/8013409 |journal=The Armiger's News |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=1–4 |via=academia.edu}}</ref> He believed smoking enhanced his capacity to work and that he could exercise [[self-control]] in moderating it. Despite health warnings from colleague [[Wilhelm Fliess]], he remained a smoker, eventually developing [[Oral cancer|buccal cancer]].<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 77, 169.</ref> Freud suggested to Fliess in 1897 that addictions, including that to tobacco, were substitutes for [[masturbation]], "the one great habit."<ref>Freud and Bonaparte 2009, pp. 238–39.</ref>

Freud had greatly admired his philosophy tutor, [[Franz Brentano]], who was known for his theories of perception and introspection. Brentano discussed the possible existence of the unconscious mind in his ''[[Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint]]'' (1874). Although Brentano denied its existence, his discussion of the unconscious probably helped introduce Freud to the concept.<ref name="Vitzpages5354">Vitz 1988, pp. 53–54.</ref> Freud owned and made use of [[Charles Darwin]]'s major evolutionary writings and was also influenced by [[Eduard von Hartmann]]'s ''[[The Philosophy of the Unconscious]]'' (1869). Other texts of importance to Freud were by [[Gustav Fechner|Fechner]] and [[Johann Friedrich Herbart|Herbart]],<ref>Sulloway 1992 [1979], pp. 66–67, 116.</ref> with the latter's ''Psychology as Science'' arguably considered to be of underrated significance in this respect.<ref>Darian Leader, ''Freud's Footnotes'', London, Faber, 2000, pp. 34–45.</ref> Freud also drew on the work of [[Theodor Lipps]], who was one of the main contemporary theorists of the concepts of the unconscious and empathy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pigman |first=G.W. |year=1995 |title=Freud and the history of empathy |journal=The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis |volume=76 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=237–56 |pmid=7628894}}</ref>

Though Freud was reluctant to associate his psychoanalytic insights with prior philosophical theories, attention has been drawn to analogies between his work and that of both [[Schopenhauer]]<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8005756/ |quote=A close study of Schopenhauer's central work, 'The World as Will and Representation', reveals that certain of Freud's most characteristic doctrines were first articulated by Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer's concept of the will contains the foundations of what in Freud become the concepts of the unconscious and the id. Schopenhauer's writings on madness anticipate Freud's theory of repression and his first theory of the aetiology of neurosis. Schopenhauer's work contains aspects of what becomes the theory of free association. And most importantly, Schopenhauer articulates major parts of the Freudian theory of sexuality. These correspondences raise a question about Freud's denial that he even read Schopenhauer until late in life. |pmid=8005756 |year=1994 |last1=Young |first1=C. |last2=Brook |first2=A. |title=Schopenhauer and Freud |journal=The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis |volume=75 ( Pt 1) |pages=101–118 }}</ref> and [[Nietzsche]]. In 1908, Freud said that he occasionally read Nietzsche, and was strongly fascinated by his writings, but did not study him, because he found Nietzsche's "intuitive insights" resembled too much his own work at the time, and also because he was overwhelmed by the "wealth of ideas" he encountered when he read Nietzsche. Freud sometimes would deny the influence of Nietzsche's ideas. One historian quotes Peter L. Rudnytsky, who says that based on Freud's correspondence with his adolescent friend Eduard Silberstein, Freud read Nietzsche's ''[[The Birth of Tragedy]]'' and probably the first two of the ''[[Untimely Meditations]]'' when he was seventeen.<ref>Paul Roazen, in Dufresne, Todd (ed). ''Returns of the French Freud: Freud, Lacan, and Beyond''. New York and London: Routledge Press, 1997, pp. 13–15.</ref><ref>Rudnytsky, Peter L. ''Freud and Oedipus''. Columbia University Press (1987), p. 198. {{ISBN|978-0231063531}}</ref> Freud bought Nietzsche's collected works in 1900; telling Wilhelm Fliess that he hoped to find in Nietzsche's works "the words for much that remains mute in me." Later, he said he had not yet opened them.<ref>Gay 2006, p. 45.</ref> Freud came to treat Nietzsche's writings, according to Peter Gay, "as texts to be resisted far more than to be studied."<ref>Gay 1988, p. 45</ref> His interest in philosophy declined after he decided on a career in [[neurology]].<ref>Holt 1989, p. 242.</ref>

Freud read [[William Shakespeare]] in English; his understanding of human psychology may have been partially derived from Shakespeare's plays.<ref>Bloom 1994, p. 346.</ref>

Freud's Jewish origins and his allegiance to his secular Jewish identity were of significant influence in the formation of his intellectual and moral outlook, especially concerning his intellectual non-conformism, as he pointed out in his ''Autobiographical Study''.<ref>Robert, Marthe (1976) ''From Oedipus to Moses: Freud's Jewish Identity'' New York: Anchor, pp. 3–6.</ref> They would also have a substantial effect on the content of psychoanalytic ideas, particularly in respect of their common concerns with depth interpretation and "the bounding of desire by law".<ref>Frosh, Stephen (2006) "Psychoanalysis and Judaism" in Black, David M. (ed.) ''Psychoanalysis and Religion in the 21st Century: Competitors or Collaborators?'', London and New York: Routledge, pp. 205–06.</ref>

===Relationship with Fliess===
{{see also|Metapsychology#Freud and the als ob problem}}
During the formative period of his work, Freud valued and came to rely on the intellectual and emotional support of his friend [[Wilhelm Fliess]], a Berlin-based ear, nose, and throat specialist whom he had first met in 1887. Both men saw themselves as isolated from the prevailing clinical and theoretical mainstream because of their ambitions to develop radical new theories of sexuality. Fliess developed highly eccentric theories of human [[Biorhythm (pseudoscience)|biorhythm]]s and a nasogenital connection which are today considered pseudoscientific. He shared Freud's views on the importance of certain aspects of sexuality – [[masturbation]], [[coitus interruptus]], and the use of [[condoms]] – in the etiology of what was then called the "actual neuroses," primarily [[neurasthenia]] and certain physically manifested anxiety symptoms.<ref name="massonee">{{Cite book |last=Masson |first=Jeffrey Moussaieff |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jDkkSLkjdJ8C |title=The Assault on Truth |publisher=Untreed Reads |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-61187-280-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jDkkSLkjdJ8C&pg=PT18 18] |author-link=Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson |orig-year=1984}}</ref> They maintained an extensive correspondence from which Freud drew on Fliess's speculations on infantile sexuality and bisexuality to elaborate and revise his own ideas. His first attempt at a systematic theory of the mind, his ''Project for a Scientific Psychology'', was developed as a [[metapsychology]] with Fliess as interlocutor.<ref>Kris, Ernst, Introduction to ''Sigmund Freud The Origins of Psychoanalysis. Letters to Wilhelm Fliess, Drafts and Notes 1887–1902''. Eds. Marie Bonaparte, Anna Freud, Ernst Kris, E. London: Imago 1954.</ref> However, Freud's efforts to build a bridge between neurology and psychology were eventually abandoned after they had reached an impasse, as his letters to Fliess reveal,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reeder |first=Jurgen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=38_kz3n4bbEC |title=Reflecting Psychoanalysis. Narrative and Resolve in the Psychoanalytic Experience |publisher=Karnac Books |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-78049-710-5 |location=London |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38_kz3n4bbEC&pg=PA10 10]}}</ref> though some ideas of the ''Project'' were to be taken up again in the concluding chapter of ''The Interpretation of Dreams''.<ref>Mannoni, Octave, ''Freud: The Theory of the Unconscious'', London: Verso 2015, pp. 40–41.</ref>

Freud had Fliess repeatedly operate on his nose and sinuses to treat "nasal reflex neurosis",<ref name="Sulloway1992">Sulloway 1992 [1979], pp. 142ff.</ref> and subsequently referred his patient [[Emma Eckstein]] to him. According to Freud, her history of symptoms included severe leg pains with consequent restricted mobility, as well as stomach and menstrual pains. These pains were, according to Fliess's theories, caused by habitual masturbation which, as the tissue of the nose and genitalia were linked, was curable by removal of part of the [[Middle nasal concha|middle turbinate]].<ref name="Masson">Masson, Jeffrey M. (1984) ''The Assault on Truth. Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory''. New York City: Farrar, Straus and Giroux,</ref><ref>Bonomi, Carlos (2015) ''The Cut and the Building of Psychoanalysis, Volume I: Sigmund Freud and Emma Eckstein''. London: Routledge, p. 80.</ref> Fliess's surgery proved disastrous, resulting in profuse, recurrent nasal bleeding; he had left a half-metre of gauze in Eckstein's nasal cavity whose subsequent removal left her permanently disfigured. At first, though aware of Fliess's culpability and regarding the remedial surgery in horror, Freud could bring himself only to intimate delicately in his correspondence with Fliess the nature of his disastrous role, and in subsequent letters maintained a tactful silence on the matter or else returned to the face-saving topic of Eckstein's hysteria. Freud ultimately, in light of Eckstein's history of adolescent self-cutting and irregular nasal (and menstrual) bleeding, concluded that Fliess was "completely without blame", as Eckstein's post-operative haemorrhages were hysterical "wish-bleedings" linked to "an old wish to be loved in her illness" and triggered as a means of "rearousing [Freud's] affection". Eckstein nonetheless continued her analysis with Freud. She was restored to full mobility and went on to practice psychoanalysis herself.<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 84–87, 154–56.</ref><ref>Schur, Max. "Some Additional 'Day Residues' of the Specimen Dream of Psychoanalysis." In ''Psychoanalysis, A General Psychology'', ed. R.M. Loewenstein et al. New York: International Universities Press, 1966, pp. 45–95.</ref><ref name=Masson/>

Freud, who had called Fliess "the [[Kepler]] of biology", later concluded that a combination of a homoerotic attachment and the residue of his "specifically Jewish mysticism" lay behind his loyalty to his Jewish friend and his consequent overestimation of both his theoretical and clinical work. Their friendship came to an acrimonious end with Fliess angry at Freud's unwillingness to endorse his general theory of sexual periodicity and accusing him of collusion in the plagiarism of his work. After Fliess failed to respond to Freud's offer of collaboration over the publication of his ''Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality'' in 1906, their relationship came to an end.<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 154–56.</ref>

===Development of psychoanalysis===
[[File:Une leçon clinique à la Salpêtrière.jpg|thumb|[[André Brouillet]]'s ''[[A Clinical Lesson at the Salpêtrière]]'' (1887) depicting a [[Jean-Martin Charcot|Charcot]] demonstration. Freud had a lithograph of this painting placed over the couch in his consulting rooms.<ref>Freud had a small lithographic version of the painting, created by Eugène Pirodon (1824–1908), framed and hung on the wall of his Vienna rooms from 1886 to 1938. Once Freud reached England, it was immediately placed directly over the analytical couch in his London rooms.</ref>]]
In October 1885, Freud went to Paris on a three-month fellowship to study with [[Jean-Martin Charcot]], a renowned neurologist who was conducting scientific research into [[hypnosis]]. He was later to recall the experience of this stay as catalytic in turning him toward the practice of medical psychopathology and away from a less financially promising career in neurology research.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=<!-- field: -->Joseph Aguayo<!-- field: --> |url=http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=pct.009.0223a |title=Joseph Aguayo ''Charcot and Freud: Some Implications of Late 19th-century French Psychiatry and Politics for the Origins of Psychoanalysis'' (1986). Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought |journal=Psychoanal. Contemp. Thought |pages=223–60 |access-date=6 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719091239/http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=pct.009.0223a |archive-date=19 July 2011|year=1986 }}</ref> Charcot specialized in the study of hysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis, which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience.

Once he had set up in private practice in Vienna in 1886, Freud began using hypnosis in his clinical work. He adopted the approach of his friend and collaborator, [[Josef Breuer]], in a type of hypnosis that was different from the French methods he had studied, in that it did not use suggestion. The treatment of one particular patient of Breuer's proved to be transformative for Freud's clinical practice. Described as [[Anna O.]], she was invited to talk about her symptoms while under hypnosis (she would coin the phrase "[[talking cure]]"). Her symptoms became reduced in severity as she retrieved memories of traumatic incidents associated with their onset.

The inconsistent results of Freud's early clinical work eventually led him to abandon hypnosis, having concluded that more consistent and effective symptom relief could be achieved by encouraging patients to talk freely, without censorship or inhibition, about whatever ideas or memories occurred to them. He called this procedure "[[free association (psychology)|free association]]". In conjunction with this, Freud found that patients' dreams could be fruitfully analyzed to reveal the complex structuring of unconscious material and to demonstrate the psychic action of [[Repression (psychology)|repression]] which, he had concluded, underlay symptom formation. By 1896 he was using the term "[[psychoanalysis]]" to refer to his new clinical method and the theories on which it was based.<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 64–71.</ref>

[[File:Freudsdoor.JPG|thumb|right|upright|alt=Ornate staircase, a landing with an interior door and window, staircase continuing up|Approach to Freud's consulting rooms at Berggasse 19]]

Freud's development of these new theories took place during a period in which he experienced heart irregularities, disturbing dreams and periods of depression, a "neurasthenia" which he linked to the death of his father in 1896<ref>{{Cite web |title=jewishvirtuallibrary Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/freud.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509021811/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/freud.html |archive-date=9 May 2013 |access-date=20 May 2013 |publisher=jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref> and which prompted a "self-analysis" of his own dreams and memories of childhood. His explorations of his feelings of hostility to his father and rivalrous jealousy over his mother's affections led him to fundamentally revise his theory of the origin of the neuroses.

Based on his early clinical work, Freud postulated that unconscious memories of sexual molestation in early childhood were a necessary precondition for psychoneuroses (hysteria and obsessional neurosis), a formulation now known as [[Freud's seduction theory]].<ref>Freud 1896c, pp. 203, 211, 219; Eissler 2005, p. 96.</ref> In the light of his self-analysis, Freud abandoned the theory that every neurosis can be traced back to the effects of infantile sexual abuse, now arguing that infantile sexual scenarios still had a causative function, but it did not matter whether they were real or imagined and that in either case, they became pathogenic only when acting as repressed memories.<ref>J. Forrester ''The Seductions of Psychoanalysis'' Cambridge University Press 1990, pp. 75–76.</ref>

This transition from the theory of infantile sexual trauma as a general explanation of how all neuroses originate to one that presupposes autonomous infantile sexuality provided the basis for Freud's subsequent formulation of the theory of the [[Oedipus complex]].<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 88–96.</ref>

Freud described the evolution of his clinical method and set out his theory of the psychogenetic origins of hysteria, demonstrated in several case histories, in ''Studies on Hysteria'' published in 1895 (co-authored with [[Josef Breuer]]). In 1899, he published ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]'' in which, following a critical review of existing theory, Freud gives detailed interpretations of his own and his patients' dreams in terms of [[Wish fulfilment|wish-fulfillments]] made subject to the repression and censorship of the "dream-work". He then sets out the theoretical model of mental structure (the unconscious, pre-conscious and conscious) on which this account is based. An abridged version, ''On Dreams'', was published in 1901. In works that would win him a more general readership, Freud applied his theories outside the clinical setting in ''[[The Psychopathology of Everyday Life]]'' (1901) and ''[[Humor in Freud|Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious]]'' (1905).<ref>Mannoni, Octave, ''Freud: The Theory of the Unconscious'', London: Verso 2015, pp. 55–81.</ref> In ''[[Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality]]'', published in 1905, Freud elaborates his theory of infantile sexuality, describing its "polymorphous perverse" forms and the functioning of the "drives", to which it gives rise, in the formation of sexual identity.<ref>Mannoni, Octave, ''Freud: The Theory of the Unconscious'', London: Verso 2015, p. 91.</ref> The same year he published ''[[Dora (case study)|Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria]]'', which became one of his more famous and controversial [[#Case histories|case studies]].<ref>Charles Bernheimer and [[Claire Kahane]] (eds) ''In Dora's Case: Freud – Hysteria – Feminism'', London: Virago 1985.</ref> Known as the 'Dora' case study, for Freud it was illustrative of [[hysteria]] as a symptom and contributed to his understanding of the importance of [[transference]] as a clinical phenomena. In other of his early case studies Freud set out to describe the symptomatology of [[obsessional neurosis]] in the case of the [[Rat man]], and [[phobia]] in the case of [[Little Hans]].<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 253–261</ref>

===Early followers===
[[File:Hall Freud Jung in front of Clark.jpg|thumb|At [[Clark University]], 1909. Front row: Freud, [[G. Stanley Hall]], [[Carl Jung]]; back row: [[Abraham Brill]], [[Ernest Jones]], [[Sándor Ferenczi]] ]]
In 1902, Freud, at last, realised his long-standing ambition to be made a university professor. The title "professor extraordinarius"<ref>{{Cite book |last1=John Forrester, Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nqYKb9-zGRkC&pg=PT70 |title=Interpreting Dreams |last2=Sigmund Freud |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-14-191553-1 |page=70 |quote=Affiliated Professor seems to me to be the best translation of professor extraordinarius, which position has the rank of Full Professor, but without payment by the University.}}</ref> was important to Freud for the recognition and prestige it conferred, there being no salary or teaching duties attached to the post (he would be granted the enhanced status of "professor ordinarius" in 1920).<ref>Clark (1980), p. 424</ref> Despite support from the university, his appointment had been blocked in successive years by the political authorities and it was secured only with the intervention of an influential ex-patient, Baroness Marie Ferstel, who (supposedly) had to bribe the minister of education with a valuable painting.<ref>Phillips, Adam (2014) ''Becoming Freud'' Yale University Press. p. 139.</ref>

Freud continued with the regular series of lectures on his work which, since the mid-1880s as a [[docent]] of Vienna University, he had been delivering to small audiences every Saturday evening at the lecture hall of the university's psychiatric clinic.<ref name="FreudianCalling52">{{Cite book |last=Rose |first=Louis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DTMnqDhTzNgC&pg=PA52 |title=The Freudian Calling: Early Psychoanalysis and the Pursuit of Cultural Science |publisher=Wayne State University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8143-2621-3 |location=Detroit |page=52}}</ref> From the autumn of 1902, a number of Viennese physicians who had expressed interest in Freud's work were invited to meet at his apartment every Wednesday afternoon to discuss issues relating to psychology and neuropathology.<ref name="Cassandra100">{{Cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjw-9LEpR04C&pg=PA100 |title=Cassandra's daughter: a history of psychoanalysis |publisher=Karnac |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85575-939-8 |location=London |page=100}}</ref> This group was called the Wednesday Psychological Society (''Psychologische Mittwochs-Gesellschaft'') and it marked the beginnings of the worldwide psychoanalytic movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellenberger |first=Henri F. |url=https://archive.org/details/discoveryofuncon00ellerich |title=The Discovery of the Unconscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry |publisher=Basic Books |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-465-01673-0 |edition=[Repr.] |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/discoveryofuncon00ellerich/page/443 443], 454 |url-access=registration}}</ref> 

Freud founded this discussion group at the suggestion of the physician [[Wilhelm Stekel]]. Stekel had studied medicine; his conversion to psychoanalysis is variously attributed to his successful treatment by Freud for a sexual problem or as a result of his reading ''The Interpretation of Dreams'', to which he subsequently gave a positive review in the Viennese daily newspaper ''Neues Wiener Tagblatt''.<ref>Stekel's review appeared in 1902. In it, he declared that Freud's work heralded "a new era in psychology".{{Cite book |last=Rose |first=Louis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DTMnqDhTzNgC&pg=PA52 |title=The Freudian Calling: Early Psychoanalysis and the Pursuit of Cultural Science |publisher=Wayne State University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8143-2621-3 |location=Detroit |page=52}}</ref>
The other three original members whom Freud invited to attend, [[Alfred Adler]], Max Kahane, and Rudolf Reitler, were also physicians<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rose |first=Louis |year=1998 |title=Freud and fetishism: previously unpublished minutes of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society |url=http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=PAQ.057.0147A |url-status=live |journal=Psychoanalytic Quartery |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=147 |doi=10.1080/21674086.1988.11927209 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309112945/http://pep-web.org/document.php?id=paq.057.0147a |archive-date=9 March 2016}}</ref> and all five were Jewish by birth.<ref>Reitler's family had converted to Catholicism. {{Cite book |last=Makari |first=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPWBHwLjeXsC&pg=PA130 |title=Revolution in Mind: The Creation of Psychoanalysis |publisher=Melbourne University Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-522-85480-0 |edition=Australian |location=Carlton, Vic. |page=130}}</ref> Both Kahane and Reitler were childhood friends of Freud who had gone to university with him and kept abreast of Freud's developing ideas by attending his Saturday evening lectures.<ref name="makari130">{{Cite book |last=Makari |first=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPWBHwLjeXsC&pg=PA130 |title=Revolution in Mind: The Creation of Psychoanalysis |publisher=Melbourne University Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-522-85480-0 |edition=Australian |location=Carlton, Vic. |pages=130–31}}</ref> In 1901, Kahane, who first introduced Stekel to Freud's work,<ref name=FreudianCalling52/> had opened an out-patient psychotherapy institute of which he was the director in Vienna.<ref name=Cassandra100/> In the same year, his medical textbook, ''Outline of Internal Medicine for Students and Practicing Physicians'', was published. In it, he provided an outline of Freud's psychoanalytic method.<ref name=FreudianCalling52/> Kahane broke with Freud and left the Wednesday Psychological Society in 1907 for unknown reasons and in 1923 committed suicide.<ref>Stekel, Wilhelm (2007). 'On the history of the psychoanalytic movement. Jap Bos (trans. and annot.). In Japp Boss and Leendert Groenendijk (eds). [https://books.google.com/books?id=xM2ZCFWADXUC&pg=PA131 ''The Self-Marginalization of Wilhelm Stekel: Freudian Circles Inside and Out'']. New York. p. 131</ref> Reitler was the director of an establishment providing thermal cures in [[Dorotheergasse]] which had been founded in 1901.<ref name=Cassandra100/> He died prematurely in 1917. Adler, regarded as the most formidable intellect among the early Freud circle, was a socialist who in 1898 had written a health manual for the tailoring trade. He was particularly interested in the potential social impact of psychiatry.<ref name="Gay174">Gay 2006, pp. 174–75</ref>

[[Max Graf]], a Viennese musicologist and father of "[[Herbert Graf|Little Hans]]", who had first encountered Freud in 1900 and joined the Wednesday group soon after its initial inception,<ref>The real name of "Little Hans" was Herbert Graf. See Gay 2006, pp. 156, 174.</ref> described the ritual and atmosphere of the early meetings of the society:

{{blockquote|The gatherings followed a definite ritual. First one of the members would present a paper. Then, black coffee and cakes were served; cigars and cigarettes were on the table and were consumed in great quantities. After a social quarter of an hour, the discussion would begin. The last and decisive word was always spoken by Freud himself. There was the atmosphere of the foundation of a religion in that room. Freud himself was its new prophet who made the heretofore prevailing methods of psychological investigation appear superficial.<ref name=Gay174/>}}

[[File:Jung 1910-rotated.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Carl Jung]] in 1910]]
By 1906, the group had grown to sixteen members, including [[Otto Rank]], who was employed as the group's paid secretary.<ref name=Gay174/> In the same year, Freud began a correspondence with [[Carl Gustav Jung]] who was by then already an academically acclaimed researcher into word-association and the [[Galvanic Skin Response]], and a lecturer at [[University of Zurich|Zurich University]], although still only an assistant to [[Eugen Bleuler]] at the [[Burghölzli|Burghölzli Mental Hospital]] in Zürich.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wehr, Gerhard |url=https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/83 |title=Jung – A Biography |date=1985 |publisher=Shambhala |isbn=978-0-87773-455-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/83 83–85]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sulloway |first=Frank J. |year=1991 |title=Reassessing Freud's case histories: the social construction of psychoanalysis |journal=Isis |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=245–75 |doi=10.1086/355727 |pmid=1917435 |s2cid=41485270}}</ref> In March 1907, Jung and [[Ludwig Binswanger]], also a Swiss psychiatrist, travelled to Vienna to visit Freud and attend the discussion group. Thereafter, they established a small psychoanalytic group in Zürich. In 1908, reflecting its growing institutional status, the Wednesday group was reconstituted as the [[Vienna Psychoanalytic Society]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellenberger |first=Henri F. |url=https://archive.org/details/discoveryofuncon00ellerich |title=The Discovery of the Unconscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry |publisher=Basic Books |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-465-01673-0 |edition=[Repr.] |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/discoveryofuncon00ellerich/page/455 455] |url-access=registration}}</ref> with Freud as president, a position he relinquished in 1910 in favor of Adler in the hope of neutralizing his increasingly critical standpoint.<ref name="Gay219">Gay 2006, p. 219</ref>

The first woman member, [[Margarete Hilferding]], joined the Society in 1910<ref name="Gay503">Gay 2006, p. 503</ref> and the following year she was joined by [[Tatiana Rosenthal]] and [[Sabina Spielrein]] who were both Russian psychiatrists and graduates of the Zürich University medical school. Before the completion of her studies, Spielrein had been a patient of Jung at the Burghölzli and the clinical and personal details of their relationship became the subject of an extensive correspondence between Freud and Jung. Both women would go on to make important contributions to the work of the Russian Psychoanalytic Society founded in 1910.<ref>Martin Miller(1998) ''Freud and the Bolsheviks'', Yale University Press, pp. 24, 45</ref>

Freud's early followers met together formally for the first time at the Hotel Bristol, [[Salzburg]] on 27 April 1908. This meeting, which was retrospectively deemed to be the first International Psychoanalytic Congress,<ref>Jones, E. 1955, pp. 44–45</ref> was convened at the suggestion of [[Ernest Jones]], then a London-based neurologist who had discovered Freud's writings and begun applying psychoanalytic methods in his clinical work. Jones had met Jung at a conference the previous year and they met up again in Zürich to organize the Congress. There were, as Jones records, "forty-two present, half of whom were or became practising analysts."<ref>Jones, Ernest (1964) Sigmund Freud: Life and Work. Edited and abridged by Lionel Trilling and Stephen Marcus. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books p. 332</ref> In addition to Jones and the Viennese and Zürich contingents accompanying Freud and Jung, also present and notable for their subsequent importance in the psychoanalytic movement were [[Karl Abraham]] and [[Max Eitingon]] from Berlin, [[Sándor Ferenczi]] from Budapest and the New York-based [[Abraham Brill]].

Important decisions were taken at the Congress to advance the impact of Freud's work. A journal, the ''Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen'', was launched in 1909 under the editorship of Jung. This was followed in 1910 by the monthly ''Zentralblatt für Psychoanalyse'' edited by Adler and Stekel, in 1911 by ''Imago'', a journal devoted to the application of psychoanalysis to the field of cultural and literary studies edited by Rank and in 1913 by the ''[[Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse]]'', also edited by Rank.<ref>Jones, Ernest (1964) ''Sigmund Freud: Life and Work''. Edited and abridged by Lionel Trilling and Stephen Marcus. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books pp. 334, 352, 361</ref> Plans for an [[International Psychoanalytical Association|international association of psychoanalysts]] were put in place and these were implemented at the Nuremberg Congress of 1910 where Jung was elected, with Freud's support, as its first president.

Freud turned to Brill and Jones to further his ambition to spread the psychoanalytic cause in the English-speaking world. Both were invited to Vienna following the Salzburg Congress and a division of labour was agreed with Brill given the translation rights for Freud's works, and Jones, who was to take up a post at the [[University of Toronto]] later in the year, tasked with establishing a platform for Freudian ideas in North American academic and medical life.<ref>Gay 2006, p. 186</ref> Jones's advocacy prepared the way for Freud's visit to the United States, accompanied by Jung and Ferenczi, in September 1909 at the invitation of [[G. Stanley Hall|Stanley Hall]], president of [[Clark University]], Worcester, Massachusetts, where he gave five lectures on psychoanalysis.<ref name=Gaypage212/>

The event, at which Freud was awarded an Honorary Doctorate, marked the first public recognition of Freud's work and attracted widespread media interest. Freud's audience included the distinguished neurologist and psychiatrist [[James Jackson Putnam]], Professor of Diseases of the Nervous System at [[Harvard]], who invited Freud to his country retreat where they held extensive discussions over a period of four days. Putnam's subsequent public endorsement of Freud's work represented a significant breakthrough for the psychoanalytic cause in the United States.<ref name="Gaypage212">Gay 2006, p. 212</ref> When Putnam and Jones organised the founding of the [[American Psychoanalytic Association]] in May 1911 they were elected president and secretary respectively. Brill founded the [[New York Psychoanalytic Society]] the same year. His English translations of Freud's work began to appear from 1909.

====Resignations from the IPA====
Some of Freud's followers subsequently withdrew from the [[International Psychoanalytical Association]] (IPA) and founded their own schools.

From 1909, Adler's views on topics such as neurosis began to differ markedly from those held by Freud. As Adler's position appeared increasingly incompatible with Freudianism, a series of confrontations between their respective viewpoints took place at the meetings of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society in January and February 1911. In February 1911, Adler, then the president of the society, resigned his position. At this time, Stekel also resigned from his position as vice president of the society. Adler finally left the Freudian group altogether in June 1911 to form his own organization with nine other members who had also resigned from the group.<ref>Three members of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society resigned at the same time as Adler to establish the Society for Free Psychoanalysis. Six other members of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society who attempted to retain links to both the Adlerian and Freudian camps were forced out after Freud insisted that they must choose one side or another. {{Cite book |last=Makari |first=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPWBHwLjeXsC&pg=PA262 |title=Revolution in Mind: The Creation of Psychoanalysis |publisher=Melbourne University Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-522-85480-0 |edition=Australian |location=Carlton, Vic. |page=262}}</ref> This new formation was initially called ''Society for Free Psychoanalysis'' but it was soon renamed the ''Society for Individual Psychology''. In the period after World War I, Adler became increasingly associated with a psychological position he devised called [[individual psychology]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellenberger |first=Henri F. |url=https://archive.org/details/discoveryofuncon00ellerich |title=The Discovery of the Unconscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry |publisher=Basic Books |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-465-01673-0 |edition=[Repr.] |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/discoveryofuncon00ellerich/page/456 456], 584–85 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

[[File:Freud and other psychoanalysts 1922.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The Committee in 1922 (from left to right): [[Otto Rank]], Sigmund Freud, [[Karl Abraham]], [[Max Eitingon]], [[Sándor Ferenczi]], [[Ernest Jones]], and [[Hanns Sachs]]]]

In 1912, Jung published ''Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido'' (published in English in 1916 as ''[[Psychology of the Unconscious]]'') making it clear that his views were taking a direction quite different from those of Freud. To distinguish his system from psychoanalysis, Jung called it [[analytical psychology]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellenberger |first=Henri F. |url=https://archive.org/details/discoveryofuncon00ellerich |title=The Discovery of the Unconscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry |publisher=Basic Books |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-465-01673-0 |edition=[Repr.] |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/discoveryofuncon00ellerich/page/456 456] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Anticipating the final breakdown of the relationship between Freud and Jung, Ernest Jones initiated the formation of a [[Inner circle (psychoanalysis)|Secret Committee]] of loyalists charged with safeguarding the theoretical coherence and institutional legacy of the psychoanalytic movement. Formed in the autumn of 1912, the Committee comprised Freud, Jones, Abraham, Ferenczi, Rank, and [[Hanns Sachs]]. Max Eitingon joined the Committee in 1919. Each member pledged himself not to make any public departure from the fundamental tenets of [[psychoanalytic theory]] before he had discussed his views with the others. After this development, Jung recognised that his position was untenable and resigned as editor of the ''Jahrbuch'' and then as president of the IPA in April 1914. The Zürich branch of the IPA withdrew from membership the following July.<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 229–30, 241</ref>

Later the same year, Freud published a paper entitled "[[s:The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement|The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement]]", the German original being first published in the ''Jahrbuch'', giving his view on the birth and evolution of the psychoanalytic movement and the withdrawal of Adler and Jung from it.

The final defection from Freud's inner circle occurred following the publication in 1924 of Rank's ''[[The Trauma of Birth]]'' which other members of the Committee read as, in effect, abandoning the Oedipus Complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytic theory. Abraham and Jones became increasingly forceful critics of Rank and though he and Freud were reluctant to end their close and long-standing relationship the break finally came in 1926 when Rank resigned from his official posts in the IPA and left Vienna for Paris. His place on the committee was taken by [[Anna Freud]].<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 474–81</ref> Rank eventually settled in the United States where his revisions of Freudian theory were to influence a new generation of therapists uncomfortable with the orthodoxies of the IPA.

===Early psychoanalytic movement===
{{psychoanalysis}}
After the founding of the IPA in 1910, an international network of psychoanalytical societies, training institutes, and clinics became well established and a regular schedule of biannual [[International Psychoanalytical Association#International Congresses|Congresses]] commenced after the end of [[World War I]] to coordinate their activities and as a forum for presenting papers on clinical and theoretical topics.<ref>Gay 2006, p. 460</ref>

Abraham and Eitingon founded the Berlin Psychoanalytic Society in 1910 and then the [[Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute]] and the Poliklinik in 1920. The Poliklinik's innovations of free treatment, and child analysis, and the Berlin Institute's standardisation of psychoanalytic training had a major influence on the wider psychoanalytic movement. In 1927, [[Ernst Simmel]] founded the [[Schloss Tegel]] Sanatorium on the outskirts of [[Berlin]], the first such establishment to provide psychoanalytic treatment in an institutional framework. Freud organised a fund to help finance its activities and his architect son, Ernst, was commissioned to refurbish the building. It was forced to close in 1931 for economic reasons.<ref>[[Elizabeth Danto|Danto, Elizabeth Ann]] (2005). ''Freud's Free Clinics: Psychoanalysis and Social Justice, 1918–1938''. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 3, 104, 185–86.</ref>

The 1910 Moscow Psychoanalytic Society became the Russian Psychoanalytic Society and Institute in 1922. Freud's Russian followers were the first to benefit from translations of his work, the 1904 Russian translation of ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' appearing nine years before Brill's English edition. The Russian Institute was unique in receiving state support for its activities, including publication of translations of Freud's works.<ref>Miller, Martin (1998) ''Freud and the Bolsheviks'', Yale University Press, pp. 24, 59</ref> Support was abruptly annulled in 1924, when [[Joseph Stalin]] came to power, after which psychoanalysis was denounced on ideological grounds.<ref>Miller (1998), p. 94.</ref>

After helping found the [[American Psychoanalytic Association]] in 1911, Ernest Jones returned to Britain from Canada in 1913 and founded the London Psychoanalytic Society. In 1919, he dissolved this organisation and, with its core membership purged of Jungian adherents, founded the [[British Psychoanalytical Society]], serving as its president until 1944. The Institute of Psychoanalysis was established in 1924 and the London Clinic of Psychoanalysis was established in 1926, both under Jones's directorship.<ref>Maddox, Brenda (2006). ''Freud's Wizard: The Enigma of Ernest Jones''. London: John Murray. pp. 147–79</ref>

The Vienna Ambulatorium (Clinic) was established in 1922 and the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1924 under the directorship of [[Helene Deutsch]].<ref>Danto, Elizabeth Ann (2005). ''Freud's Free Clinics: Psychoanalysis and Social Justice, 1918–1938''. New York: Columbia University Press, p. 151</ref> Ferenczi founded the Budapest Psychoanalytic Institute in 1913 and a clinic in 1929.

Psychoanalytic societies and institutes were established in Switzerland (1919), France (1926), Italy (1932), the Netherlands (1933), Norway (1933), and in [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]] (Jerusalem, 1933) by Eitingon, who had fled Berlin after [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power.<ref>Gay 2006, p. 406</ref> The New York Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1931.

The 1922 Berlin Congress was the last Freud attended.<ref>Gay 2006, p. 394</ref> By this time his speech had become seriously impaired by the prosthetic device he needed as a result of a series of operations on his cancerous jaw. He kept abreast of developments through regular correspondence with his principal followers and via the circular letters and meetings of the Secret Committee which he continued to attend.

The Committee continued to function until 1927 by which time institutional developments within the IPA, such as the establishment of the International Training Commission, had addressed concerns about the transmission of psychoanalytic theory and practice. There remained, however, significant differences over the issue of lay analysis – i.e. the acceptance of non-medically qualified candidates for psychoanalytic training. Freud set out his case in favour in 1926 in his ''[[The Question of Lay Analysis]]''. He was resolutely opposed by the American societies who expressed concerns over professional standards and the risk of litigation (though child analysts were made exempt). These concerns were also shared by some of his European colleagues. Eventually, an agreement was reached allowing societies autonomy in setting criteria for candidature.<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 490–500</ref>

In 1930, Freud received the [[Goethe Prize]] in recognition of his contributions to psychology and German literary culture.<ref>Gay 2006, p. 571</ref>

===Patients===
Freud used pseudonyms in his case histories. Some patients known by pseudonyms were [[Cäcilie M.]] (Anna von Lieben); [[Dora (case study)|Dora]] (Ida Bauer, 1882–1945); Frau Emmy von N. (Fanny Moser); Fräulein Elisabeth von R. (Ilona Weiss);<ref>Appignanesi, Lisa & Forrester, John. ''Freud's Women''. London: Penguin Books, 1992, p. 108</ref> Fräulein Katharina (Aurelia Kronich); Fräulein Lucy R.; [[Oedipus complex#Oedipal case study|Little Hans]] ([[Herbert Graf]], 1903–1973); [[Rat Man]] (Ernst Lanzer); Enos Fingy (Joshua Wild);<ref>Breger, Louis. ''Freud: Darkness in the Midst of Vision''. Wiley, 2011, p. 262</ref> and [[Sergei Pankejeff|Wolf Man]] (Sergei Pankejeff). Other famous patients included [[Prince Pedro Augusto of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Pedro Augusto of Brazil]]; [[H.D.]]; [[Emma Eckstein]]; [[Gustav Mahler]], with whom Freud had only a single, extended consultation; [[Princess Marie Bonaparte]]; [[Edith Banfield Jackson]];<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lynn |first=D.J. |year=2003 |title=Freud's psychoanalysis of Edith Banfield Jackson, 1930–1936 |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=609–25 |doi=10.1521/jaap.31.4.609.23009 |pmid=14714630}}</ref> and Albert Hirst.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lynn |first=D.J. |year=1997 |title=Freud's analysis of Albert Hirst, 1903–1910 |journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=69–93 |doi=10.1353/bhm.1997.0045 |pmid=9086627 |s2cid=37708194}}</ref>

===Cancer===
In 1917, Freud noticed a painful lesion on the roof of his mouth, but, after it receded, did not seek medical attention. By February 1923, the growth had spread, which was when Freud identified it as either [[leukoplakia]] or [[epithelioma]] brought on by his smoking habit. Reluctant to give up smoking, he initially kept his symptoms a secret. Freud later consulted the [[dermatologist]] Maximilian Steiner, who advised him to quit smoking while minimizing the lesion's implications. Shorter after,  Freud met with Felix Deutsch, who was also reluctant to tell Freud that the growth was cancerous. He, too, described it as an instance of leukoplakia. Both men told Freud to give up smoking, and Deutsch told him to seek surgical treatment.<ref>Gay 1988, pp.418-419</ref> Freud was treated by Marcus Hajek, a [[rhinologist]] whose competence he had previously questioned. Hajek performed an unnecessary cosmetic surgery in his clinic's outpatient department. Freud bled during and after the operation and may narrowly have escaped death. At a subsequent visit Deutsch saw that further surgery would be required but did not tell Freud he had cancer because he was worried that Freud might commit suicide.<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 419–20</ref>

=== Escape from Nazism ===

In January 1933, the [[Nazi Party]] took control of Germany, and Freud's books were prominent among [[Nazi book burnings|those they burned]]. Freud remarked to [[Ernest Jones]]: "What progress we are making. In the [[Middle Ages]] they would have burned me. Now, they are content with burning my books."<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 592–93.</ref> Freud underestimated the growing Nazi threat and remained determined to stay in Vienna, even following the [[Anschluss]] of 13 March 1938 and the outbreaks of violent [[antisemitism]] that ensued.<ref name="Gay618">Gay 2006, pp. 618–20, 624–25.</ref> Jones, the then president of the [[International Psychoanalytical Association]] (IPA), flew into Vienna on 15 March determined to get Freud to change his mind and seek exile in Britain. This prospect and the shock of the arrest and interrogation of Anna Freud by the [[Gestapo]] finally convinced Freud it was time to leave.<ref name=Gay618/> Jones left for London the following week with a list provided by Freud of the party of émigrés for whom immigration permits would be required. Back in London, Jones used his personal acquaintance with the Home Secretary, [[Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|Sir Samuel Hoare]], to expedite the granting of permits. There were seventeen in all, and work permits were provided where relevant. Jones also used his influence in scientific circles, persuading the president of the [[Royal Society]], [[William Henry Bragg|Sir William Bragg]], to write to the Foreign Secretary [[Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|Lord Halifax]], requesting to good effect that diplomatic pressure be applied in Berlin and Vienna on Freud's behalf. Freud also had support from American diplomats, notably his ex-patient and American ambassador to France, [[William Christian Bullitt, Jr.|William Bullitt]]. Bullitt alerted U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to the increased dangers facing the Freuds, resulting in the American consul-general in Vienna, [[John Cooper Wiley]], arranging regular monitoring of Berggasse 19. He also intervened by phone during the Gestapo interrogation of Anna Freud.<ref>Cohen 2009, pp. 152–53.</ref>

The departure from Vienna began in stages throughout April and May 1938. Freud's grandson, Ernst Halberstadt, and Freud's son Martin's wife and children left for Paris in April. Freud's sister-in-law, Minna Bernays, left for London on 5 May, Martin Freud the following week and Freud's daughter Mathilde and her husband, Robert Hollitscher, on 24 May.<ref>Cohen 2009, pp. 157–59.</ref>

By the end of the month, arrangements for Freud's own departure for London had become stalled, mired in a legally tortuous and financially extortionate process of negotiation with the Nazi authorities. Under regulations imposed on the Jewish population by the Nazis, a ''[[Reichskommissar|Kommissar]]'' was appointed to manage Freud's assets and those of the IPA. Freud was allocated to Dr Anton Sauerwald, who had studied chemistry at [[Vienna University]] under Professor [[Josef Herzig]], an old friend of Freud's. Sauerwald read Freud's books to further learn about him and became sympathetic. Though required to disclose details of all Freud's bank accounts to his superiors and to arrange the destruction of the historic library of books housed at the IPA, Sauerwald did neither. Instead, he removed evidence of Freud's foreign bank accounts to his own safe-keeping and arranged the storage of the IPA library in the Austrian National Library, where it remained until the end of the war.<ref>Cohen 2009, p. 160.</ref>

[[File:Freud Museum London 2.jpg|thumb|right|Freud's last home, now dedicated to his life and work as the [[Freud Museum]], {{nowrap|20 Maresfield Gardens,}} [[Hampstead]], north London]]
[[File:Sigmund Freud (4625084022).jpg|thumb|right|Close up of his commemorative Blue plaque (commissioned by [[English Heritage]]) at his Hampstead home]]

Though Sauerwald's intervention lessened the financial burden of the [[Reich Flight Tax|''Reich'' Flight Tax]] on Freud's declared assets, other substantial charges were levied concerning the debts of the IPA and the valuable collection of antiquities Freud possessed. Unable to access his own accounts, Freud turned to [[Princess Marie Bonaparte]], the most eminent and wealthy of his French followers, who had travelled to Vienna to offer her support, and it was she who made the necessary funds available.<ref>Cohen 2009, p. 166</ref> This allowed Sauerwald to sign the necessary exit visas for Freud, his wife Martha, and daughter Anna. They left Vienna on the [[Orient Express]] on 4 June, accompanied by their housekeeper and a doctor, arriving in Paris the following day, where they stayed as guests of Marie Bonaparte, before travelling overnight to London, arriving at [[London Victoria station]] on 6 June.

Among those soon to call on Freud in London to pay their respects were [[Salvador Dalí]], [[Stefan Zweig]], [[Leonard Woolf|Leonard]] and [[Virginia Woolf]], and [[H. G. Wells]]. Representatives of the [[Royal Society]] called with the Society's Charter for Freud, who had been elected a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1936|Foreign Member]] in 1936, to sign himself into membership. Marie Bonaparte arrived near the end of June to discuss the fate of Freud's four elderly sisters in Vienna. Her subsequent attempts to get them exit visas failed; they all were murdered in [[Nazi concentration camps]].<ref>Cohen 2009, pp. 178, 205–07.</ref>

In early 1939, Sauerwald arrived in London in mysterious circumstances, where he met Freud's brother Alexander.<ref>Schur, Max (1972) ''Freud: Living and Dying'', London: Hogarth Press, pp. 498–99.</ref> He was tried and imprisoned in 1945 by an Austrian court for his activities as a Nazi Party official. Responding to a plea from his wife, Anna Freud wrote to confirm that Sauerwald "used his office as our appointed commissar in such a manner as to protect my father". Her intervention helped secure his release in 1947.<ref>Cohen 2009, p. 213.</ref>

The Freud's new family home was established in [[Hampstead]] at [[Freud Museum|20 Maresfield Gardens]] in September 1938. Freud's architect son, Ernst, designed modifications of the building including the installation of an electric lift. The study and library areas were arranged to create the atmosphere and visual impression of Freud's Vienna consulting rooms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Welter |first=Volker |title=Ernst L. Freud, Architect |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-85745-233-7 |location=New York |pages=151}}</ref> He continued to see patients there until the terminal stages of his illness. He also worked on his last books, ''[[Moses and Monotheism]]'', published in German in 1938 and in English the following year<ref name="Chaney62">Chaney, Edward (2006). 'Egypt in England and America: The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and Religion', ''Sites of Exchange: European Crossroads and Faultlines'', eds. M. Ascari and A. Corrado. Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, Chaney 'Freudian Egypt', ''The London Magazine'' (April/May 2006), pp. 62–69, and Chaney, 'Moses and Monotheism, by Sigmund Freud', 'The Canon', ''THE'' (''Times Higher Education''), 3–9 June 2010, No. 1, 950, p. 53.</ref> and the uncompleted ''[[An Outline of Psychoanalysis]]'', which was published posthumously.

===Death===
[[File:Freud's ashes in Golder's Green Columbarium.JPG|thumb|upright|Freud's ashes in the [[Freud Corner (Golders Green Crematorium)|"Freud Corner"]] at [[Golders Green Crematorium]], London]]
By mid-September 1939, Freud's [[jaw cancer|cancer of the jaw]] was causing him increasingly severe pain and had been declared inoperable. The last book he read, [[Honoré de Balzac|Balzac]]'s ''[[La Peau de chagrin]]'', prompted reflections on his own increasing frailty, and a few days later he turned to his doctor, friend, and fellow refugee, [[Max Schur]], reminding him that they had previously discussed the terminal stages of his illness: "Schur, you remember our 'contract' not to leave me in the lurch when the time had come. Now it is nothing but torture and makes no sense." When Schur replied that he had not forgotten, Freud said, "I thank you," and then, "Talk it over with Anna, and if she thinks it's right, then make an end of it." Anna Freud wanted to postpone her father's death, but Schur convinced her it was pointless to keep him alive; on 21 and 22 September, he administered doses of morphine that resulted in Freud's death at around 3&nbsp;am on 23 September 1939.<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 650–51</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Index entry |url=http://www.freebmd.org.uk/cgi/information.pl?cite=1i7bxu%2FFMHIpo2b6nEloZg&scan=1 |access-date=2 September 2016 |website=FreeBMD |publisher=ONS}}</ref> However, discrepancies in the accounts Schur gave of his role in Freud's final hours led to inconsistencies between Freud's main biographers. A revised account proposes that Schur was absent from Freud's deathbed when a third and final dose of morphine was administered by Dr. Josephine Stross, a colleague of Anna Freud, leading to Freud's death at around midnight on 23 September 1939.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lacoursiere |first=Roy B. |year=2008 |title=Freud's Death: Historical Truth and Biographical Fictions |journal=American Imago |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=107–28 |doi=10.1353/aim.0.0003 |s2cid=170247119}}</ref>

Three days after his death, Freud's body was cremated at [[Golders Green Crematorium]], with [[Harrods]] acting as funeral directors, on the instructions of his son, Ernst.<ref name="sydney1">{{Cite web |title=Sigmund Freud's Collection: An Archaeology of the Mind |url=http://sydney.edu.au/museums/publications/catalogues/freud-catalogue.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222133332/http://sydney.edu.au/museums/publications/catalogues/freud-catalogue.pdf |archive-date=22 February 2014 |access-date=8 February 2014}}</ref> Funeral orations were given by Ernest Jones and the Austrian author [[Stefan Zweig]]. Freud's ashes were later placed in [[Freud Corner (Golders Green Crematorium)|a corner of the crematorium's Ernest George Columbarium]] on a plinth designed by his son, Ernst,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Welter |first=Volker M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j9HFNKIU44wC&q=golders+green+columbarium+freud&pg=PA205 |title=Ernst L. Freud, Architect |date=1 October 2011 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-0-85745-234-4}}</ref> in a sealed<ref name=sydney1/> [[Pottery of ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[bell krater]] painted with [[Dionysus|Dionysian scenes]] that Freud had received as a gift from Marie Bonaparte, and which he had kept in his study in Vienna for many years. After his wife, Martha, died in 1951, her ashes were also placed in the urn.<ref>Burke, Janine ''The Sphinx at the Table: Sigmund Freud's Art Collection and the Development of Psychoanalysis'', New York: Walker and Co. 2006, p. 340.</ref>

==Ideas==

===Early work===
Freud began his study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1873.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strutzmann |first=Helmut |title=Freud at 150: 21st Century Essays on a Man of Genius |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7657-0547-1 |editor-last=Joseph P. Merlino |location=Plymouth |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |page=33 |chapter=An overview of Freud's life |editor-last2=Marilyn S. Jacobs |editor-last3=Judy Ann Kaplan |editor-last4=K. Lynne Moritz |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqNPvtl_GhcC&pg=PA33}}</ref> He took almost nine years to finish due to his interest in neurophysiological research, specifically investigation of the sexual anatomy of eels and the physiology of the fish nervous system, and because of his interest in studying philosophy with [[Franz Brentano]]. He entered private practice in neurology for financial reasons, receiving his M.D. in 1881 at the age of 25.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The History of Psychiatry |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/62292238/History-of-Psychiatry |access-date=6 February 2011}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Amongst his principal concerns in the 1880s was the anatomy of the brain, specifically the [[medulla oblongata]]. He intervened in the important debates about [[aphasia]] with his monograph of 1891, ''Zur Auffassung der Aphasien'', in which he coined the term [[agnosia]] and counselled against a too locationist view of the explanation of neurological deficits. Like his contemporary [[Eugen Bleuler]], he emphasized brain function rather than brain structure.

Freud was also an early researcher in the field of [[cerebral palsy]], which was then known as "cerebral paralysis". He published several medical papers on the topic and showed that the disease existed long before other researchers of the period began to study it. He suggested that [[William John Little]], the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth being a cause. Instead, he suggested that complications in birth were a symptom.

The origin of Freud's early work with psychoanalysis can be linked to [[Josef Breuer]]. Freud credited Breuer with opening the way to the discovery of the psychoanalytical method by his treatment of the case of [[Anna O.]] In November 1880, Breuer was called in to treat a highly intelligent 21-year-old woman ([[Bertha Pappenheim]]) for a persistent cough and hallucinations that he diagnosed as hysterical. He found that while nursing her dying father, she had developed some transitory symptoms, including visual disorders and paralysis and contractures of limbs, which he also diagnosed as hysterical. Breuer began to see his patient almost every day as the symptoms increased and became more persistent, and observed that she entered states of ''absence''. He found that when, with his encouragement, she told fantasy stories in her evening states of ''absence'' her condition improved, and most of her symptoms had disappeared by April 1881. Following the death of her father in that month her condition deteriorated. Breuer recorded that some of the symptoms eventually remitted spontaneously and that full recovery was achieved by inducing her to recall events that had precipitated the occurrence of a specific symptom.<ref>Hirschmuller, Albrecht. ''The Life and Work of Josef Breuer.'' New York: New York University Press, 1989, pp. 101–16, 276–307.</ref> In the years immediately following Breuer's treatment, Anna O. spent three short periods in sanatoria with the diagnosis "hysteria" with "somatic symptoms",<ref>Hirschmuller, Albrecht. The Life and Work of Josef Breuer. New York: New York University Press, 1989, p. 115.</ref> and some authors have challenged Breuer's published account of a cure.<ref>Ellenberger, E.H., "The Story of 'Anna O.': A Critical Account with New Data", J. of the Hist. of the Behavioral Sciences, 8 (3), 1972, pp. 693–717.</ref><ref>Borch-Jacobsen, Mikkel. ''Remembering Anna O.: A Century of Mystification.'' London: Routledge, 1996.</ref><ref>Macmillan, Malcolm. ''Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc.'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1997, pp. 3–24.</ref> Richard Skues rejects this interpretation, which he sees as stemming from both Freudian and anti-psychoanalytical revisionism — revisionism that regards both Breuer's narrative of the case as unreliable and his treatment of Anna O. as a failure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Miller |first=Gavin |date=25 November 2009 |title=Book Review: Richard A. Skues (2009) Sigmund Freud and the History of Anna O.: Reopening a Closed Case |journal=History of Psychiatry |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=509–10 |doi=10.1177/0957154X090200040205 |s2cid=162260138}} Skues, Richard A. ''Sigmund Freud and the History of Anna O.: Reopening a Closed Case.'' Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.</ref>

===Seduction theory===
{{main|Freud's seduction theory}}
In the early 1890s, Freud used a form of treatment based on the one that Breuer had described to him, modified by what he called his "pressure technique" and his newly developed analytic technique of interpretation and reconstruction. According to Freud's later accounts of this period, as a result of his use of this procedure, most of his patients in the mid-1890s reported early [[childhood sexual abuse]]. He believed these accounts, which he used as the basis for his [[Freud's seduction theory|seduction theory]], but then he came to believe that they were fantasies. He explained these at first as having the function of "fending off" memories of infantile masturbation, but in later years he wrote that they represented Oedipal fantasies, stemming from innate [[Drive theory|drives]] that are sexual and destructive in nature.<ref>Freud, ''Standard Edition'', vol. 7, 1906, p. 274; ''S.E. 14'', 1914, p. 18; '' S.E. 20'', 1925, p. 34; ''S.E. 22'', 1933, p. 120; Schimek, J. G. (1987), Fact and Fantasy in the Seduction Theory: A Historical Review. ''Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association'', xxxv: 937–65; {{Cite journal |last=Esterson |first=Allen |year=1998 |title=Jeffrey Masson and Freud's seduction theory: a new fable based on old myths |url=http://human-nature.com/esterson |url-status=live |journal=History of the Human Sciences |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1177/095269519801100101 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081103235211/http://www.human-nature.com/esterson/ |archive-date=3 November 2008 |s2cid=170827479}}</ref>

Another version of events focuses on Freud's proposing that unconscious memories of infantile sexual abuse were at the root of the psychoneuroses in letters to Fliess in October 1895, before he reported that he had actually discovered such abuse among his patients.<ref>Masson (ed.), 1985, pp. 141, 144. Esterson, Allen (1998), Jeffrey Masson and Freud's seduction theory: a new fable based on old myths. ''History of the Human Sciences'', 11 (1), [http://www.esterson.org/Masson_and_Freuds_seduction_theory.htm pp. 1–21] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828102024/http://www.esterson.org/Masson_and_Freuds_seduction_theory.htm |date=28 August 2008 }}</ref> In the first half of 1896, Freud published three papers, which led to his [[Freud's seduction theory|seduction theory]], stating that he had uncovered, in all of his current patients, deeply repressed memories of sexual abuse in early childhood.<ref>Freud, ''Standard Edition 3'', (1896a), (1896b), (1896c); Israëls, H. & Schatzman, M. (1993), The Seduction Theory. ''History of Psychiatry'', iv: 23–59; Esterson, Allen (1998).</ref> In these papers, Freud recorded that his patients were not consciously aware of these memories, and must therefore be present as ''unconscious memories'' if they were to result in hysterical symptoms or obsessional neurosis. The patients were subjected to considerable pressure to "reproduce" infantile sexual abuse "scenes" that Freud was convinced had been repressed into the unconscious.<ref>Freud, Sigmund (1896c). The Aetiology of Hysteria. ''Standard Edition'', Vol. 3, p. 204; Schimek, J. G. (1987). Fact and Fantasy in the Seduction Theory: A Historical Review. ''Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association'', xxxv: 937–65; Toews, J. E. (1991). Historicizing Psychoanalysis: Freud in His Time and for Our Time, ''Journal of Modern History'', vol. 63 (pp. 504–45), p. 510, n. 12; McNally, R. J. ''Remembering Trauma'', Harvard University Press, 1993, pp. 159–69.</ref> Patients were generally unconvinced that their experiences of Freud's clinical procedure indicated actual sexual abuse. He reported that even after a supposed "reproduction" of sexual scenes the patients assured him emphatically of their disbelief.<ref>Freud, ''Standard Edition 3'', 1896c, pp. 204, 211; Schimek, J. G. (1987); Esterson, Allen (1998); Eissler, 2001, pp. 114–15; McNally, R. J. (2003).</ref>

As well as his pressure technique, Freud's clinical procedures involved analytic inference and the symbolic interpretation of symptoms to trace back to memories of infantile sexual abuse.<ref>Freud, ''Standard Edition 3'', 1896c, pp. 191–93; Cioffi, Frank. (1998 [1973]). Was Freud a Liar? ''Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience.'' Chicago: Open Court, pp. 199–204; Schimek, J. G. (1987); Esterson, Allen (1998); McNally, (2003), pp, 159–69.</ref> His claim of one hundred percent confirmation of his theory only served to reinforce previously expressed reservations from his colleagues about the validity of findings obtained through his suggestive techniques.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Borch-Jacobsen |first=Mikkel |year=1996 |title=Neurotica: Freud and the Seduction Theory. ''October'', vol. 76, Spring 1996, MIT, pp. 15–43; Hergenhahn, B.R. (1997), ''An Introduction to the History of Psychology'', Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, pp. 484–485; Esterson, Allen (2002). The myth of Freud's ostracism by the medical community in 1896–1905: Jeffrey Masson's Assault on Truth |url=http://www.esterson.org/Myth_of_Freuds_ostracism.htm |url-status=live |journal=History of Psychology |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=115–34 |doi=10.1037/1093-4510.5.2.115 |pmid=12096757 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828101945/http://www.esterson.org/Myth_of_Freuds_ostracism.htm |archive-date=28 August 2008}}</ref> Freud subsequently showed inconsistency as to whether his seduction theory was still compatible with his later findings.<ref name="thepsychologist">Andrews, B., and Brewin, C. [http://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-13/edition-12/what-did-freud-get-right-0 ''What did Freud get right?'', The psychologist, December 2000, page 606] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409174924/http://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-13/edition-12/what-did-freud-get-right-0 |date=9 April 2015 }}</ref> In an addendum to ''The Aetiology of Hysteria'' he stated: "All this is true [the sexual abuse of children], but it must be remembered that at the time I wrote it I had not yet freed myself from my overvaluation of reality and my low valuation of phantasy".<ref>Freud, S. 1924/1961, p. 204 ''The aetiology of hysteria''. In J. Strachey (ed. and trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 3, pp. 189–224). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1896, addendum originally published 1924)</ref> Some years later Freud explicitly rejected the claim of his colleague Ferenczi that his patients' reports of sexual molestation were actual memories instead of fantasies, and he tried to dissuade Ferenczi from making his views public.<ref name=thepsychologist/> Karin Ahbel-Rappe concludes that "Freud marked out and started down a trail of investigation into the nature of the experience of infantile incest and its impact on the human psyche, and then abandoned this direction for the most part."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ahbel-Rappe |first=K |year=2006 |title='I no longer believe': did Freud abandon the seduction theory? |journal=Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=171–99 |doi=10.1177/00030651060540010101 |pmid=16602351 |s2cid=25379440}}</ref>

===Cocaine===
As a medical researcher, Freud was an early user and proponent of [[cocaine]] as a stimulant as well as [[analgesic]]. He believed that cocaine was a cure for many mental and physical problems, and in his 1884 paper "On Coca" he extolled its virtues. Between 1883 and 1887 he wrote several articles recommending medical applications, including its use as an [[antidepressant]]. He narrowly missed out on obtaining [[scientific priority]] for discovering its [[anaesthesia|anesthetic]] properties of which he was aware but had mentioned only in passing.<ref>Jones, Ernest. ''Sigmund Freud: Life and Work'', vol. 1. London: Hogarth Press, 1953, pp. 94–96.</ref> ([[Karl Koller (ophthalmologist)|Karl Koller]], a colleague of Freud's in Vienna, received that distinction in 1884 after reporting to a medical society the ways cocaine could be used in delicate eye surgery.) Freud also recommended cocaine as a cure for [[morphine]] addiction.<ref>Byck, Robert. ''Cocaine Papers by Sigmund Freud''. Edited with an Introduction by Robert Byck. New York, Stonehill, 1974.</ref> He had introduced cocaine to his friend [[Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow]], who had become addicted to morphine taken to relieve years of excruciating nerve pain resulting from an infection acquired after injuring himself while performing an autopsy. His claim that Fleischl-Marxow was cured of his addiction was premature, though he never acknowledged that he had been at fault. Fleischl-Marxow developed an acute case of [[Cocaine intoxication|"cocaine psychosis"]], and soon returned to using morphine, dying a few years later still suffering from intolerable pain.<ref>[http://www.lrb.co.uk/v22/n08/borc01_.html Borch-Jacobsen (2001)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012005618/http://lrb.co.uk/v22/n08/borc01_.html |date=12 October 2007 }} Review of Israëls, Han. ''Der Fall Freud: Die Geburt der Psychoanalyse aus der Lüge.'' Hamburg: Europäische Verlagsanstalt, 1999.</ref>

The application as an anaesthetic turned out to be one of the few safe uses of cocaine, and as reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world, Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished.<ref>Thornton, Elizabeth. ''Freud and Cocaine: The Freudian Fallacy.'' London: Blond and Briggs, 1983, pp. 45–46.</ref> After the "Cocaine Episode"<ref>Jones, E., 1953, pp. 86–108.</ref> Freud ceased to publicly recommend the use of the drug, but continued to take it himself occasionally for depression, [[migraine]] and nasal inflammation during the early 1890s, before discontinuing its use in 1896.<ref>Masson, Jeffrey M. (ed.) ''The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess, 1887–1904.'' Harvard University Press, 1985, pp. 49, 106, 126–27, 132, 201.</ref>

===Unconscious===
{{Main|Unconscious mind}}
The concept of the unconscious, which Freud regarded as already well known amongst poets, was important to his theories and ideas; he also believed that it was his responsibility to ensure that it received scientific recognition in the field of psychology.<ref name="WollheimChap" />

Freud states explicitly that his concept of the unconscious as he first formulated it was based on the theory of repression. In his formulations of the concept of repression in his 1915 paper 'Repression' ([[#The Standard Edition|''Standard Edition'']] XIV) Freud introduces the distinction in the unconscious between primary repression linked to the universal taboo on incest ('innately present originally') and repression ('after expulsion') that was a product of an individual's life history ('acquired in the course of the ego's development') in which something that was at one point conscious is rejected or eliminated from consciousness.<ref name="WollheimChap">Wollheim, Richard (1971). ''Freud''. London, Fontana Press, pp. 157–76</ref>

In his account of the development and modification of his theory of unconscious mental processes he sets out in his 1915 paper 'The Unconscious' ([[#The Standard Edition|''Standard Edition'']] XIV), Freud identifies the three perspectives he employs: the dynamic, the economic and the topographical.

The dynamic perspective concerns firstly the constitution of the unconscious by repression and secondly the process of "censorship" which maintains unwanted, anxiety-inducing thoughts as such. Here Freud is drawing on observations from his earliest clinical work in the treatment of hysteria.

In the economic perspective the focus is on the trajectories of the repressed contents ("the vicissitudes of sexual impulses") as they undergo complex transformations in the process of both symptom formation and normal unconscious thought such as dreams and slips of the tongue. These were topics Freud explored in detail in ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]'' and ''[[The Psychopathology of Everyday Life]]''.

Whereas both these former perspectives focus on the unconscious as it is about to enter consciousness, the topographical perspective represents a shift in which the systemic properties of the unconscious, its characteristic processes, and modes of operation such as [[Condensation (psychology)|Condensation]] and [[Displacement (psychology)|Displacement]], are placed in the foreground.

This "first topography" presents a model of psychic structure comprising three systems:
* The System Ucs – the unconscious: "primary process" mentation governed by the [[Pleasure principle (psychology)|pleasure principle]] characterised by "exemption from mutual contradiction,{{nbsp}}... mobility of cathexes, timelessness, and replacement of external by psychical reality." ('The Unconscious' (1915) [[#The Standard Edition|''Standard Edition'']] XIV).
* The System Pcs – the preconscious in which the unconscious thing-presentations of the primary process are bound by the secondary processes of language (word presentations), a prerequisite for their becoming available to consciousness.
* The System Cns – conscious thought governed by the reality principle.

In his later work, notably in ''[[The Ego and the Id]]'' (1923), a second topography is introduced comprising [[id, ego and super-ego]], which is superimposed on the first without replacing it.<ref>Mannoni, Octave, ''Freud: The Theory of the Unconscious'', London: Verso 2015 [1971], pp. 137–140.</ref> In this later formulation of the concept of the unconscious the [[Id, ego and super-ego#Id|id]]<ref name=id>{{cite book |first1=Jean |last1=Laplanche |first2=Jean-Bertrand |last2=Pontalis |author-link1=Jean Laplanche |author-link2=Jean-Bertrand Pontalis |chapter=Id |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RptYDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Id+%3D+D.\+Es%22&pg=PT363 |title=The Language of Psychoanalysis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RptYDwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=[[Abingdon-on-Thames]] |year=2018 |orig-year=1973 |isbn=978-0-429-92124-7}}</ref> comprises a reservoir of instincts or [[Drive theory|drives]], a portion of them being hereditary or innate, a portion repressed or acquired. As such, from the economic perspective, the id is the prime source of psychical energy and from the dynamic perspective it conflicts with the [[Id, ego and super-ego#Ego|ego]]<ref name=ego>Laplanche, Jean; Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand (2018) [1973]. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=RptYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT243 Ego]".</ref> and the [[Id, ego and super-ego#Superego|super-ego]]<ref name=superego>Laplanche, Jean; Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand (2018) [1973]. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=RptYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT780 Super-Ego]".</ref> which, genetically speaking, are diversifications of the id.

===Dreams===
{{Main|The Interpretation of Dreams}}
Freud believed the function of dreams is to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that which would otherwise awaken the dreamer.<ref>Rycroft, Charles. ''A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis''. London: Penguin Books, 1995, p. 41.</ref>

In Freud's theory dreams are instigated by the daily occurrences and thoughts of everyday life. In what Freud called the "dream-work", these "secondary process" thoughts ("word presentations"), governed by the rules of language and the reality principle, become subject to the "primary process" of unconscious thought ("thing presentations") governed by the pleasure principle, wish gratification and the repressed sexual scenarios of childhood. Because of the disturbing nature of the latter and other repressed thoughts and desires which may have become linked to them, the dream-work operates a censorship function, disguising by distortion, displacement, and condensation the repressed thoughts to preserve sleep.<ref>Mannoni, Octave, ''Freud: The Theory of the Unconscious'', London: Verso 2015 [1971], pp. 55–58.</ref>

In the clinical setting, Freud encouraged free association to the dream's manifest content, as recounted in the dream narrative, to facilitate interpretative work on its latent content – the repressed thoughts and fantasies – and also on the underlying mechanisms and structures operative in the dream-work. As Freud developed his theoretical work on dreams he went beyond his theory of dreams as wish-fulfillments to arrive at an emphasis on dreams as "nothing other than a particular form of thinking.{{nbsp}}... It is the dream-work that creates that form, and it alone is the essence of dreaming".<ref>Freud, Sigmund ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' (1976 [1900]) Harmondsworth: Pelican Books, p. 650.</ref>

===Psychosexual development===
{{Main|Psychosexual development}}
Freud's theory of psychosexual development proposes that following on from the initial [[polymorphous perversity]] of infantile sexuality, the sexual "drives" pass through the distinct developmental phases of the [[oral stage|oral]], the [[anal stage|anal]], and the [[phallic stage|phallic]]. Though these phases then give way to a [[latency stage]] of reduced sexual interest and activity (from the age of five to puberty, approximately), they leave a "perverse" and bisexual residue which persists during the formation of [[genital stage|adult genital sexuality]]. Freud argued that [[neurosis]] and [[perversion]] could be explained in terms of fixation or regression to these phases whereas adult character and cultural creativity could achieve a [[Sublimation (psychology)|sublimation]] of their perverse residue.<ref>Mannoni 2015 [1971], pp. 93–97.</ref>

After Freud's later development of the theory of the [[Oedipus complex]] this normative developmental trajectory becomes formulated in terms of the child's renunciation of incestuous desires under the fantasised threat of (or fantasised fact of, in the case of the girl) [[castration complex|castration]].<ref>Gay 2006, pp. 515–18</ref> The "dissolution" of the Oedipus complex is then achieved when the child's rivalrous identification with the parental figure is transformed into the pacifying identifications of the [[Ego ideal]] which assume both similarity and difference and acknowledge the separateness and autonomy of the other.<ref>Cavell, Marcia ''The Psychoanalytic Mind'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press 1996, p. 225.</ref>

Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material arguing that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal Oedipal conflict.<ref>{{cite book|last=Paul|first=Robert A.|title=The Cambridge Companion to Freud|year=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-37779-9|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4UNrJlLGjoC&pg=PA274|editor=James Neu |page=274|chapter=Freud's anthropology}}</ref>

===Id, ego, and super-ego===
{{Main|Id, ego and super-ego}}
[[File:Structural-Iceberg.svg|thumb|The [[iceberg]] metaphor is often used to explain the psyche's parts in relation to one another.]]

Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego. Freud discussed this model in the 1920 essay ''Beyond the Pleasure Principle'', and fully elaborated upon it in ''[[The Ego and the Id]]'' (1923), in which he developed it as an alternative to his previous topographic schema (i.e., conscious, unconscious and preconscious). The id is the unconscious portion of the psyche that operates on the "pleasure principle" and is the source of basic impulses and drives; it seeks immediate pleasure and gratification.<ref name=Hothersall290>Hothersall, D. 2004. "History of Psychology", 4th ed., Mcgraw-Hill: NY p. 290</ref> Freud acknowledged that his use of the term ''Id'' (''das Es'', "the It") derives from the writings of [[Georg Groddeck]].<ref name=id/><ref>Freud, S. ''The Ego and the Id'', ''Standard Edition 19'', pp. 7, 23.</ref>

The super-ego is the moral component of the psyche.<ref name=superego/> The rational ego attempts to exact a balance between the impractical [[hedonism]] of the id and the equally impractical moralism of the super-ego;<ref name=ego/> it is the part of the psyche that is usually reflected most directly in a person's actions. When overburdened or threatened by its tasks, it may employ [[defence mechanism]]s including [[denial]], repression, undoing, rationalization, and [[displacement (psychology)|displacement]]. This concept is usually represented by the "Iceberg Model".<ref>{{cite web|last=Heffner|first=Christopher|title=Freud's Structural and Topographical Models of Personality|url=http://allpsych.com/psychology101/ego.html|website=Psychology 101|access-date=5 September 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110913161450/http://allpsych.com/psychology101/ego.html|archive-date=13 September 2011}}</ref> This model represents the roles the id, ego, and super-ego play in relation to conscious and unconscious thought.

Freud compared the relationship between the ego and the id to that between a charioteer and his horses: the horses provide the energy and drive, while the charioteer provides direction.<ref name=Hothersall290/>

===Life and death drives===
{{Main|Libido|Death drive|Repetition compulsion}}
Freud believed that the human psyche is subject to two conflicting drives: the life drive or [[libido]] and the [[death drive]]. The life drive was also termed "Eros" and the death drive "Thanatos", although Freud did not use the latter term; "Thanatos" was introduced in this context by [[Paul Federn]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Ernest |author-link=Ernest Jones |title=The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud. Volume 3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0nwIAQAAIAAJ |year=1957 |orig-year=1953 |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |location=New York City |page=273 |quote=It is a little odd that Freud himself never, except in conversation, used for the death instinct the term ''Thanatos'', one which has become so popular since. At first, he used the terms "death instinct" and "destructive instinct" indiscriminately, alternating between them, but in his discussion with Einstein about war, he made the distinction that the former is directed against the self and the latter, derived from it, is directed outward. Stekel had in 1909 used the word Thanatos to signify a death wish, but it was Federn who introduced it in the present context.}}</ref><ref>Laplanche, Jean; Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand (2018) [1973]. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=RptYDwAAQBAJ&dq=Thanatos+%22Greek+term+(=Death)%22&pg=PT800 Thanatos]".</ref> Freud hypothesized that libido is a form of mental energy with which processes, structures, and object-representations are invested.<ref>Rycroft, Charles. ''A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis''. London: Penguin Books, 1995, p. 95.</ref>

In ''[[Beyond the Pleasure Principle]]'' (1920), Freud inferred the existence of a death drive. Its premise was a regulatory principle that has been described as "the principle of psychic inertia", "the Nirvana principle",<ref>Laplanche, Jean; Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand (2018) [1973]. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=RptYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT493 Nirvana Principle"].</ref> and "the conservatism of instinct". Its background was Freud's earlier ''Project for a Scientific Psychology'', where he had defined the principle governing the mental apparatus as its tendency to divest itself of quantity or to reduce tension to zero. Freud had been obliged to abandon that definition, since it proved adequate only to the most rudimentary kinds of mental functioning, and replaced the idea that the apparatus tends toward a level of zero tension with the idea that it tends toward a minimum level of tension.<ref name=Wollheim>Wollheim, Richard. ''Freud''. London, Fontana Press, pp. 184–86.</ref>

Freud in effect readopted the original definition in ''Beyond the Pleasure Principle'', this time applying it to a different principle. He asserted that on certain occasions the mind acts as though it could eliminate tension, or in effect to reduce itself to a state of extinction; his key evidence for this was the existence of the [[repetition compulsion|compulsion to repeat]]. Examples of such repetition included the dream life of traumatic neurotics and children's play. In the phenomenon of repetition, Freud saw a psychic trend to work over earlier impressions, to master them and derive pleasure from them, a trend that was before the pleasure principle but not opposed to it. In addition to that trend, there was also a principle at work that was opposed to, and thus "beyond" the pleasure principle. If repetition is a necessary element in the binding of energy or adaptation, when carried to inordinate lengths it becomes a means of abandoning adaptations and reinstating earlier or less evolved psychic positions. By combining this idea with the hypothesis that all repetition is a form of discharge, Freud concluded that the compulsion to repeat is an effort to restore a state that is both historically primitive and marked by the total draining of energy: death.<ref name=Wollheim/> This has been described by some scholars as "metaphysical biology".<ref>{{cite book |last=Schuster |first=Aaron |title=The Trouble with Pleasure. Deleuze and Psychoanalysis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWiLCwAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |isbn=978-0-262-52859-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rWiLCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 32]}}</ref>

===Melancholia===

In his 1917 essay "Mourning and Melancholia", Freud distinguished mourning, painful but an inevitable part of life, and "melancholia", his term for pathological refusal of a mourner to "[[decathexis|decathect]]" from the lost one. Freud claimed that, in normal mourning, the ego was responsible for narcissistically detaching the libido from the lost one as a means of self-preservation, but that in "melancholia", prior ambivalence towards the lost one prevents this from occurring. Suicide, Freud hypothesized, could result in extreme cases, when unconscious feelings of conflict became directed against the mourner's own ego.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perelberg|first1=Rosine Jozef|title=Freud: A Modern Reader|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-71373-0|page=168|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4v7fxQifjxAC&pg=PA168|language=en|date=15 September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Howarth|first1=Glennys|last2=Leaman|first2=Oliver|title=Encyclopedia of Death and Dying|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-91378-5|page=304|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pMi2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT304|language=en|date=16 December 2003}}</ref>

===Femininity and female sexuality===
Freud's account of femininity is grounded in his theory of psychic development as it traces the uneven transition from the earliest stages of infantile and childhood sexuality, characterised by [[polymorphous perversity]] and a [[bisexuality|bisexual]] disposition, through to the fantasy scenarios and rivalrous identifications of the [[Oedipus complex]] and on to the greater or lesser extent these are modified in adult sexuality. There are different trajectories for the boy and the girl which arise as effects of the [[castration complex]]. Anatomical difference, the possession of a penis, induces castration anxiety for the boy whereas the girl experiences a sense of deprivation. In the boy's case the castration complex concludes the Oedipal phase whereas for the girl it precipitates it.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Russell |last1=Grigg |first2=Dominique |last2=Hecq |first3=Craig |last3=Smith |title =Feminine Sexuality: The Early Psychoanalytic Controversies| publisher =Rebus Press | date =1999 | location = London| pages = 7–17| isbn =1-900877-13-9}}</ref>

The constraint of the erotic feelings and fantasies of the girl and her turning away from the mother to the father is an uneven and precarious process entailing "waves of repression". The normal outcome is, according to Freud, the [[vagina]] becoming "the new leading zone" of sexual sensitivity, displacing the previously dominant [[clitoris]], the phallic properties of which made it indistinguishable in the child's early sexual life from the penis. This leaves a legacy of [[penis envy]] and emotional ambivalence for the girl which was "intimately related to the essence of femininity" and leads to "the greater proneness of women to [[neurosis]] and especially [[hysteria]]."<ref>Appignanesi, Lisa & Forrester, John. ''Freud's Women''. London: Penguin Books, 1992, pp. 403–414 citing ''Three Essay on Sexuality'' (1908), ''SE'' VII</ref> In his last paper on the topic Freud likewise concludes that "the development of femininity remains exposed to disturbance by the residual phenomena of the early masculine period... Some portion of what we men call the 'enigma of women' may perhaps be derived from this expression of bisexuality in women's lives."<ref name="Femininity 1933, SE XXII">Femininity (1933), ''SE'' XXII</ref>

Initiating what became the first debate within psychoanalysis on femininity, [[Karen Horney]] of the [[Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute]] set out to challenge Freud's account of femininity. Rejecting Freud's theories of the feminine castration complex and penis envy, Horney argued for a primary femininity and penis envy as a defensive formation rather than arising from the fact, or "injury", of biological asymmetry as Freud held. Horney had the influential support of [[Melanie Klein]] and [[Ernest Jones]] who coined the term "[[phallogocentrism|phallocentrism]]" in his critique of Freud's position.<ref>Appignanesi, Lisa & Forrester, John. ''Freud's Women''. London: Penguin Books, 1992, pp. 430–37</ref>

In defending Freud against this critique, feminist scholar [[Jacqueline Rose]] has argued that it presupposes a more normative account of female sexual development than that given by Freud. She finds that Freud moved from a description of the little girl stuck with her 'inferiority' or 'injury' in the face of the anatomy of the little boy to an account in his later work which explicitly describes the process of becoming 'feminine' as an 'injury' or 'catastrophe' for the complexity of her earlier psychic and sexual life.<ref>Rose, J. ''Sexuality in the Field of Vision'', London: Verso 1986 pp. 91–93</ref>

Throughout his deliberations on what he described as the "dark continent" of female sexuality and the "riddle" of femininity, Freud was careful to emphasise the "average validity" and provisional nature of his findings.<ref name="Femininity 1933, SE XXII"/> He did, however, in response to his critics, maintain a steadfast objection "to all of you ... to the extent that you do not distinguish more clearly between what is psychic and what is biological..."<ref>Appignanesi, Lisa & Forrester, John. ''Freud's Women''. London: Penguin Books, 1992, p.431 citing Freud's letter to Carl Müller-Braunschweig of 21 July 1935.</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Sigmund Freud's views on religion}}

Freud regarded the [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] God as an illusion based upon the infantile emotional need for a powerful, supernatural [[pater familias]]. He maintained that religion – once necessary to restrain man's violent nature in the early stages of civilization – in modern times, can be set aside in favor of [[reason]] and science.<ref>Jones, James W., [https://books.google.com/books?id=c0CBs5KeujoC 'Foreword'] in Charles Spezzano and Gerald J. Gargiulo (eds), [https://books.google.com/books?id=c0CBs5KeujoC ''Soul on the Couch: Spirituality, Religion and Morality in Contemporary Psychoanalysis''] (Hillsdale, 2003), p. xi. {{cite journal|last=Kepnes|first=Steven D.|title=Bridging the gap between understanding and explanation approaches to the study of religion|journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion|date=Dec 1986|volume=25|issue=4|pages=504–12|doi=10.2307/1385914 |jstor=1385914}}</ref> "Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices" (1907) notes the likeness between faith (religious belief) and [[Neurosis|neurotic]] obsession.<ref>Gay 1995, p. 435.</ref> ''[[Totem and Taboo]]'' (1913) proposes that society and religion begin with the [[patricide]] and eating of the powerful paternal figure, who then becomes a revered collective memory.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chapman|first=Christopher N.|title=Freud, Religion and Anxiety|year=2007|location=Morrisville, NC |isbn=978-1-4357-0571-5|pages=30–31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c0CBs5KeujoC&pg=PA30}} Freud, Sigmund ''Totem and Taboo'' (New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 1950) pp. x, 142, {{ISBN|978-0-393-00143-3}}</ref> In ''[[The Future of an Illusion]]'' (1927) Freud argues that the function of religious belief is psychological consolation. He argues that the belief in a supernatural protector serves as a buffer against man's "fear of nature", just as the belief in an afterlife serves as a buffer against man's fear of death. The core idea of the work is that religious belief can be explained through its function in society, not through its relation to the truth. In ''[[Civilization and Its Discontents]]'' (1930), he considers the "oceanic feeling" of wholeness, limitlessness, and eternity (brought to his attention by his friend [[Romain Rolland]]), as a possible source for religious feelings. He notes that he has no experience of this feeling himself, and suggests that it is a regression into the state of consciousness that precedes the ego's differentiation of itself from the world of objects and others.<ref>Rubin, Jeffrey B., [https://books.google.com/books?id=c0CBs5KeujoC&pg=PA79 'Psychoanalysis is self-centred'] in Charles Spezzano and Gerald J. Gargiulo (eds), [https://books.google.com/books?id=c0CBs5KeujoC ''Soul on the Couch: Spirituality, Religion and Morality in Contemporary Psychoanalysis''] (Hillsdale, 2003), p. 79. Freud, Sigmund, ''Civilization and its Discontents'' (New York: Norton 1962), pp. 11–12 {{ISBN|978-0-393-09623-1}} {{cite book|last=Fuller|first=Andrew R.|title=Psychology and religion: classical theorists and contemporary developments|year=2008|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=978-0-7425-6022-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eYUWamPaO-IC&pg=PA33|edition=4th|page=33}}</ref> ''[[Moses and Monotheism]]'' (1937) proposes that [[Moses]] was the tribal pater familias, killed by the Jews, who psychologically coped with the patricide with a [[reaction formation]] conducive to their establishing monotheistic Judaism;<ref name="HR">{{cite journal |author-last=Stratton |author-first=Kimberly B. |date=August 2017 |title=Narrating Violence, Narrating Self: Exodus and Collective Identity in Early Rabbinic Literature |editor1-last=Copp |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Wedemeyer |editor2-first=Christian K. |editor2-link=Christian K. Wedemeyer |journal=[[History of Religions (journal)|History of Religions]] |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] for the [[University of Chicago Divinity School]] |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=68–92 |doi=10.1086/692318 |doi-access= |issn=0018-2710 |jstor=26548153 |s2cid=148787965 |lccn=64001081 |oclc=299661763}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Costello|first=Stephen|title=Hermeneutics and the psychoanalysis of religion|year=2010|publisher=Peter Lang|location=Bern|isbn=978-3-0343-0124-4|pages=72–77|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZabEx-Vyw-0C}}</ref> analogously, he described the Roman Catholic rite of [[Eucharist|Holy Communion]] as cultural evidence of the killing and devouring of the sacred father.<ref name=Chaney62/><ref>{{cite book|last=Assoun|first=Paul-Laurent |translator-last=Collier |translator-first=Richard L. |title=Freud and Nietzsche|year=2002|publisher=Continuum|location=London|isbn=978-0-8264-6316-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y39rOOHV44UC|page=166}} {{cite journal|last=Friedman|first=R.Z.|title=Freud's religion: Oedipus and Moses|journal=Religious Studies|date=May 1998|volume=34|issue=2|page=145|doi=10.1017/S0034412598004296|s2cid=170245489 }} {{cite book|first=Mikkel |last=Borch-Jacobsen |translator-first=Catherine |translator-last=Porter|title=The Freudian subject|year=1989|publisher=Macmillan|location=Basingstoke|isbn=978-0-333-48986-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GjqsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA271|page=271 n. 42}} Freud, Sigmund, ''Moses and Monotheism'' (New York: Vintage Books, 1967). Freud, Sigmund, ''An Autobiographical Study'' (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1952) pp. 130–31 {{ISBN|0-393-00146-6}}</ref>

Moreover, he perceived religion, with its suppression of violence, as mediator of the societal and personal, the public and the private, conflicts between Eros and [[Death drive|Thanatos]], the forces of life and death.<ref>Juergensmeyer 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=lpb1mbaHjGQC&pg=PA171 p. 171]; Juergensmeyer 2009, [https://books.google.com/books?id=W9lXRS43iXIC&pg=PA895 p. 895]; Marlan, Leeming and Madden 2008, [https://books.google.com/books?id=g0QQtlJSyOEC&pg=PA439 p. 439]; Fuller 1994, [https://books.google.com/books?id=HNTcr6E83YIC&pg=PA42 pp. 42, 67]; Palmer 1997, [https://books.google.com/books?id=yxQdqP_OPt8C&pg=PA35 pp. 35–36]</ref> Later works indicate Freud's pessimism about the future of civilization, which he noted in the 1931 edition of ''Civilization and its Discontents''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Perry|first=Marvin|title=Western Civilization A Brief History|year=2010|publisher=Wadsworth Pub Co|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-495-90115-0|page=405|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jR534a1fK-IC&pg=PA405}} {{cite book|last=Acquaviva|first=Gary J.|title=Values, Violence, and Our Future|year=2000|publisher=Rodopi|location=Amsterdam [u.a.]|isbn=978-90-420-0559-4|page=26|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qAtNAPteVk0C&pg=PA26|edition=2.}} {{cite book|last=Lehrer|first=Ronald|title=Nietzsche's Presence in Freud's Life and Thought: on the Origins of a Psychology of Dynamic Unconscious Mental Functioning|year=1995|publisher=State Univ. of New York Press|location=Albany|isbn=978-0-7914-2145-1|pages=180–81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQkznZX1_5oC&pg=PA180}} Freud, Sigmund, ''Civilization and its Discontents'' (New York: Norton 1962), pp. 92 and editor's footnote {{ISBN|978-0-393-09623-1}}) {{cite book|last=Hergenhahn|first=B.R.|title=An Introduction to the History of Psychology|year=2009|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|location=Australia|isbn=978-0-495-50621-8|pages=536–37|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iZwXnfYAo3oC&pg=PA536|edition=6th}} {{cite book|last=Anderson|first=James William|title=Sigmund Freud and his impact on the modern world|year=2001|publisher=Analytical Press|location=Hillsdale, NJ; London|isbn=978-0-88163-342-9|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RTfJV3fWXWUC&pg=PA29|author2=Anderson, James William |editor=Jerome A. Winer|page=29|chapter=Sigmund Freud's life and work: an unofficial guide to the Freud exhibit}} But cf., {{cite book|last=Drassinower|first=Abraham|title=Freud's theory of culture: Eros, loss and politics|year=2003|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Lanham (Md.)|isbn=978-0-7425-2262-6|pages=11–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evDNqzuM0uAC&pg=PA12}}</ref> Humphrey Skelton described Freud's [[worldview]] as one of "[[stoicism|stoical]] [[humanism]]".<ref name="HH">{{cite web|url=https://heritage.humanists.uk/sigmund-freud/|title=Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)|work=Humanist Heritage|publisher=[[Humanists UK]]|accessdate=29 March 2022}}</ref> The Humanist Heritage project summed his contributions to understanding of religion by saying:

{{blockquote|Freud's ideas on the origins of the religious impulse, and the comforting illusion religion provided, were a significant contribution to a tradition of [[secular humanism|scientific humanist thought]], in which research and reason were the means of uncovering truth. They also served to highlight the powerful resonance of childhood influences on adult lives, not least in the realm of religion.<ref name="HH"/>}}

In a footnote of his 1909 ''Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-year-old Boy'', Freud theorized that the universal fear of castration was provoked in the uncircumcised when they perceived circumcision and that this was "the deepest unconscious root of [[antisemitism]]".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWL4ja2BbnEC&q=Sigmund+Freud+circumcision+anti+semitism&pg=PA67|title=Anti-semitism: A History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred|author=Avner Falk|isbn=978-0-313-35384-0|year=2008|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref>

==Legacy==
[[File:Sigmund Freud statue, London 1.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The 1971 [[Statue of Sigmund Freud, Hampstead|Sigmund Freud memorial in Hampstead, North London]], by [[Oscar Nemon]], is located near to where Sigmund and Anna Freud lived, now the [[Freud Museum]]. The building behind the statue is the [[Tavistock Clinic]], a major psychological health care institution.]]
Freud's legacy, though a highly contested area of controversy, has been assessed as "one of the strongest influences on twentieth-century thought, its impact comparable only to that of [[Darwinism]] and [[Marxism]],"<ref>{{cite book|last=Frosh|first=Stephen|title=The Politics of Psychoanalysis|year=1987|publisher=Macmillan|location=London|isbn=0-333-39614-6|page=1}}</ref> with its range of influence permeating "all the fields of culture ... so far as to change our way of life and concept of man."<ref>{{cite book|last=Ellenberger|first=Henri F.|title=The Discovery of the Unconscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry|year=1970|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0-465-01673-0|page=546}}</ref>

===Psychotherapy===
Though not the first methodology in the practice of individual verbal psychotherapy,<ref>H. Ellenberger, ''The Discovery of the Unconscious'', 1970, pp. 301, 486, 536, 331–409.</ref> Freud's psychoanalytic system came to dominate the field from early in the twentieth century, forming the basis for many later variants. While these systems have adopted different theories and techniques, all have followed Freud by attempting to achieve psychic and behavioral change through having patients talk about their difficulties.<ref name=Systems>Ford & Urban 1965, p. 109</ref> Psychoanalysis is not as influential as it once was in Europe and the United States, though in some parts of the world, notably Latin America, its influence in the later 20th century expanded substantially. Psychoanalysis also remains influential within many contemporary schools of psychotherapy and has led to innovative therapeutic work in schools and with families and groups.<ref>Pick, Daniel (2015). ''Psychoanalysis: A Very Short Introduction''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. pp. 19, 121.</ref> There is a substantial body of research which demonstrates the efficacy of the clinical methods of psychoanalysis<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1192/bji.2017.4| pmid=29953128| pmc=6020924|title = The scientific standing of psychoanalysis| journal=BJPsych International| volume=15| issue=1| pages=5–8|year = 2018|last1 = Solms|first1 = Mark|issn=2056-4740}}</ref> and of related [[psychodynamic]] therapies in treating a wide range of psychological disorders.<ref>[http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/pdf/Evidence%20in%20support%20of%20psychodynamic%20psychotherapy%20-updated%20Nov%202013.pdf Evidence in Support of Psychodynamic Therapy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304075051/http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/pdf/Evidence%20in%20support%20of%20psychodynamic%20psychotherapy%20-updated%20Nov%202013.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }} Jessica Yakeley and Peter Hobson (2013)</ref>

The [[neo-Freudian]]s, a group including [[Alfred Adler]], [[Otto Rank]], [[Karen Horney]], [[Harry Stack Sullivan]] and [[Erich Fromm]], rejected Freud's theory of instinctual drive, emphasized interpersonal relations and self-assertiveness, and made modifications to therapeutic practice that reflected these theoretical shifts. The neo-Freudian analysis places more emphasis on the patient's relationship with the analyst and less on the exploration of the unconscious.<ref name=Kovel/>

[[Jacques Lacan]] approached psychoanalysis through [[linguistics]] and literature. Lacan believed that most of Freud's essential work had been done before 1905, and that [[ego psychology]] and [[object relations theory]] were based upon misreadings of Freud's work. Lacan saw desire as more important than need.<ref>Mitchell, Stephen A. & Black, Margaret J. ''Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought''. New York: Basic Books, 1995, pp. 193–203</ref>

[[Wilhelm Reich]] developed some of  Freud's ideas, such as Actualneurosis. Freud applied that idea both to infants and to adults. In the former case, seductions were sought as the causes of later neuroses and in the latter incomplete sexual release. Unlike Freud, Reich retained the idea that actual experience, especially sexual experience, was of key significance. By the 1920s, Reich had "taken Freud's original ideas about sexual release to the point of specifying the orgasm as the criteria of healthy function." Reich was also "developing his ideas about character into a form that would later take shape, first as "muscular armour", and eventually as a transducer of universal biological energy, the "orgone"."<ref>Kovel 1991, pp.176-178</ref>

[[Fritz Perls]], who helped to develop [[Gestalt therapy]], was influenced by Reich, Jung, and Freud. The key idea of gestalt therapy is that Freud overlooked the structure of awareness, "an active process that moves toward the construction of organized meaningful wholes{{nbsp}}... between an organism and its environment." These wholes, called ''gestalts'', are "patterns involving all the layers of organismic function – thought, feeling, and activity", to which improper formation, in Perls' view, gives rise to neurosis and anxieties. Gestalt therapy attempts to cure patients by placing them in contact with "immediate organismic needs." Perls rejected the verbal approach of classical psychoanalysis; favoring a workshop style approach.<ref name=Kovel/>

[[Arthur Janov]]'s [[primal therapy]], which has been influential post-Freudian psychotherapy, resembles psychoanalytic therapy in its emphasis on early childhood experience but has also differences with it. While Janov's theory is akin to Freud's early idea of Actualneurosis, he does not have a dynamic psychology but a nature psychology like that of Reich or Perls, in which need is primary while wish is derivative and dispensable when need is met. Despite its surface similarity to Freud's ideas, Janov's theory lacks a strictly psychological account of the unconscious and belief in infantile sexuality. While for Freud there was a hierarchy of dangerous situations, for Janov the key event in the child's life is an awareness that the parents do not love it.<ref name="Kovel">{{cite book |author=Kovel, Joel |url=https://archive.org/details/completeguidetot0000kove_x8w2 |title=A Complete Guide to Therapy |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-14-013631-9 |location=London |pages=96, 123–35, 165–98}}</ref> Janov writes in ''[[The Primal Scream]]'' (1970) that primal therapy has in some ways returned to Freud's early ideas and techniques.<ref>Janov, Arthur. ''The Primal Scream. Primal Therapy: The Cure for Neurosis''. London: Sphere Books, 1977, p. 206</ref>

[[Ellen Bass]] and Laura Davis, co-authors of ''[[The Courage to Heal]]'' (1988), are described as "champions of survivorship" by [[Frederick Crews]], who considers Freud the key influence upon them, although in his view they are indebted not to classic psychoanalysis but to "the pre-psychoanalytic Freud{{nbsp}}... who supposedly took pity on his hysterical patients, found that they were all harboring memories of early abuse{{nbsp}}... and cured them by unknotting their repression." Crews sees Freud as having anticipated the [[recovered memory]] movement by emphasizing "mechanical cause-and-effect relations between symptomatology and the premature stimulation of one body zone or another", and with pioneering its "technique of thematically matching a patient's symptom with a sexually symmetrical 'memory.{{'"}} Crews believes that Freud's confidence in accurate recall of early memories anticipates the theories of recovered memory therapists such as [[Lenore Terr]], which in his view have led to people being wrongfully imprisoned.<ref>Crews, Frederick, et al. ''The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute''. New York: The New York Review of Books, 1995, pp. 206–12</ref>

===Science===
Research projects designed to test Freud's theories empirically have led to a vast literature on the topic.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stevens |first=Richard |title=Freud and Psychoanalysis |location=Milton Keynes |publisher=Open University Press |year=1985 |page=96 |isbn=978-0-335-10180-1 |quote=the number of relevant studies runs into thousands"}}</ref> American psychologists began to attempt to study repression in the experimental laboratory around 1930. In 1934, when the psychologist [[Saul Rosenzweig]] sent Freud reprints of his attempts to study repression, Freud responded with a dismissive letter stating that "the wealth of reliable observations" on which psychoanalytic assertions were based made them "independent of experimental verification."<ref>{{cite book |author1=MacKinnon, Donald W. |author2=Dukes, William F. |editor=Postman, Leo |title=Psychology in the Making: Histories of Selected Research Problems |url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyinmaki00postrich |url-access=registration |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |location=New York |year=1962 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychologyinmaki00postrich/page/663 663], 703 |isbn=978-0-19-866224-2 }}</ref> Seymour Fisher and Roger P. Greenberg concluded in 1977 that some of Freud's concepts were supported by [[empirical evidence]]. Their analysis of research literature supported Freud's concepts of oral and anal personality constellations, his account of the role of Oedipal factors in certain aspects of male personality functioning, his formulations about the relatively greater concern about the loss of love in women's as compared to men's personality economy, and his views about the instigating effects of homosexual anxieties on the formation of paranoid delusions. They also found limited and equivocal support for [[Sigmund Freud's views on homosexuality|Freud's theories about the development of homosexuality]]. They found that several of Freud's other theories, including his portrayal of dreams as primarily containers of secret, unconscious wishes, as well as some of his views about the [[psychodynamics]] of women, were either not supported or contradicted by research. Reviewing the issues again in 1996, they concluded that much experimental data relevant to Freud's work exists, and supports some of his major ideas and theories.<ref name=FisherG>Fisher, Seymour & Greenberg, Roger P. Freud Scientifically Reappraised: Testing the Theories and Therapy. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1996, pp. 13–15, 284–85</ref>

Other viewpoints include those of psychologist and science historian Malcolm Macmillan, who concludes in ''Freud Evaluated'' (1991) that "Freud's method is not capable of yielding objective data about mental processes".<ref>Malcolm Macmillan, ''Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc'', MIT Press, 1997, p. xxiii.</ref> Morris Eagle states that it has been "demonstrated quite conclusively that because of the epistemologically contaminated status of clinical data derived from the clinical situation, such data have questionable probative value in the testing of psychoanalytic hypotheses".<ref>p. 32, Morris N. Eagle, "The Epistemological Status of Recent Developments in Psychoanalytic Theory", in 'R.S. Cohen and L. Lauden (eds.), ''Physics, Philosophy and Psychoanalysis'', Reidel 1983, pp. 31–55.</ref> [[Richard Webster (British author)|Richard Webster]], in ''[[Why Freud Was Wrong]]'' (1995), described psychoanalysis as "perhaps the most complex and successful" [[pseudoscience]] in history.<ref name=Webster>{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Webster |year=2005 |title=Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science and Psychoanalysis |publisher=The Orwell Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-9515922-5-0 |pages=12, 437}}</ref> Crews believes that psychoanalysis has no scientific or therapeutic merit.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Frederick Crews |title=The Verdict on Freud |journal=Psychological Science |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=63–68 |date=1 March 1996|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00331.x |s2cid=143453699 }}</ref> [[University of Chicago]] research associate Kurt Jacobsen takes these critics to task for their own supposedly dogmatic and historically naive views both about psychoanalysis and the nature of science.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jacobsen|first=Kurt|title=Freud's Foes: Psychoanalysis, Science and Resistance|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2009|isbn=978-0-7425-2263-3|location=Lanham, Maryland}}</ref>

I.B. Cohen regards Freud's ''Interpretation of Dreams'' as a revolutionary work of science, the last such work to be published in book form.<ref>Cohen, I.B Revolution in Science Harvard University Press 1985, p. 356</ref> In contrast [[Allan Hobson]] believes that Freud, by rhetorically discrediting 19th century investigators of dreams such as [[Alfred Maury]] and the [[Marie-Jean-Léon, Marquis d'Hervey de Saint Denys|Marquis de Hervey de Saint-Denis]] at a time when study of the physiology of the brain was only beginning, interrupted the development of scientific dream theory for half a century.<ref>{{cite book |first=Allan |last=Hobson |year=1988 |title=The Dreaming Brain| publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=New York |isbn = 978-0-14-012498-9 |page=42}}</ref> The dream researcher G. William Domhoff has disputed claims of Freudian dream theory being validated.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://psych.ucsc.edu/dreams/Library/domhoff_2000d.html |title=Domhoff: Beyond Freud and Jung |publisher=Psych.ucsc.edu |date=23 September 2000 |access-date=21 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825091204/http://psych.ucsc.edu/dreams/Library/domhoff_2000d.html |archive-date=25 August 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Karl Popper.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Head high portrait of a man about sixty years old|[[Karl Popper]] argued that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were unfalsifiable.]]
[[Karl Popper]] claimed that [[Freud's Psychoanalytic Theories]] were presented in [[Falsifiability|unfalsifiable]] form, meaning that no experiment could ever disprove them.<ref name=Popper>Popper, Karl. ''Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge.'' London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1963, pp. 33–39</ref> The philosopher [[Adolf Grünbaum]] argues in ''[[The Foundations of Psychoanalysis]]'' (1984) that Popper was mistaken and that many of Freud's theories are empirically testable, a position with which others such as Eysenck agree.<ref>[[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck, Hans]], [[Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire]] Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1986, p. 14.</ref><ref>Grünbaum, A. ''The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique.'' University of California Press, 1984, pp. 97–126.</ref> The philosopher [[Roger Scruton]], writing in ''Sexual Desire'' (1986), also rejected Popper's arguments, pointing to the theory of repression as an example of a Freudian theory that does have testable consequences. Scruton nevertheless concluded that psychoanalysis is not genuinely scientific, because it involves an unacceptable dependence on metaphor.<ref>{{cite book |title = Sexual Desire: A Philosophical Investigation |publisher = Phoenix Books |author = Roger Scruton |year = 1994 |page = 201 |isbn = 978-1-85799-100-0}}</ref> The philosopher Donald Levy agrees with Grünbaum that Freud's theories are falsifiable but disputes Grünbaum's contention that therapeutic success is only the empirical basis on which they stand or fall, arguing that a much wider range of empirical evidence can be adduced via clinical case material.<ref>Levy, Donald, ''Freud Among the Philosophers'' (1996), pp. 129–32.</ref>

In a study of psychoanalysis in the United States, Nathan Hale reported on the "decline of psychoanalysis in psychiatry" during 1965–1985.<ref>Nathan G. Hale, ''The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States, 1917–1985'', Oxford University Press, 1995 (pp. 300–21).</ref> The continuation of this trend was noted by Alan Stone: "As academic psychology becomes more 'scientific' and psychiatry more biological, psychoanalysis is being brushed aside."<ref>Alan A. Stone, "Where Will Psychoanalysis Survive?", Keynote address to the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 9 December 1995. {{cite web |url=http://harvardmagazine.com/1997/01/original.html |title=Original Address|author= Alan A. Stone, M.D |access-date=22 November 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327083025/http://harvardmagazine.com/1997/01/original.html |archive-date=27 March 2013}}</ref> Paul Stepansky, while noting that psychoanalysis remains influential in the humanities, records the "vanishingly small number of psychiatric residents who choose to pursue psychoanalytic training" and the "nonanalytic backgrounds of psychiatric chairpersons at major universities" among the evidence he cites for his conclusion that "Such historical trends attest to the marginalisation of psychoanalysis within American psychiatry."<ref>Paul E. Stepansky, ''Psychoanalysis at the Margins'', 2009, New York: Other Press, pp. 11, 14.</ref> Nonetheless, Freud was ranked as the third most cited psychologist of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2002 |pages=139–152 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx |last1=Haggbloom |first1=Steven J. |last2=Warnick |first2=Renee |last3=Warnick |first3=Jason E. |last4=Jones |first4=Vinessa K. |last5=Yarbrough |first5=Gary L. |last6=Russell |first6=Tenea M. |last7=Borecky |first7=Chris M. |last8=McGahhey |first8=Reagan |last9=Powell III |first9=John L. |last10=Beavers |first10=Jamie |last11=Monte |first11=Emmanuelle |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129035801/http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx |archive-date=29 January 2017|citeseerx=10.1.1.586.1913 |s2cid=145668721 }}</ref> It is also claimed that in moving beyond the "orthodoxy of the not so distant past{{nbsp}}... new ideas and new research has led to an intense reawakening of interest in psychoanalysis from neighbouring disciplines ranging from the humanities to [[neuroscience]] and including the non-analytic therapies".<ref>Cooper, Arnold M. (ed.), Editor's Preface to ''Contemporary Psychoanalysis in America'' American Psychiatric Pub. 2008, pp. xiii–xiv</ref>

Research in the emerging field of [[neuropsychoanalysis]], founded by neuroscientist and psychoanalyst [[Mark Solms]],<ref>Kaplan-Solms, K. & Solms, Mark. ''Clinical studies in neuro-psychoanalysis: Introduction to a depth neuropsychology.'' London: Karnac Books, 2000; Solms, Mark & Turbull, O. ''The brain and the inner world: An introduction to the neuroscience of subjective experience.'' New York: Other Press, 2002.</ref> has proved controversial with some psychoanalysts criticising the very concept itself.<ref>Blass, Rachel B. and Carmeli, Zvi, "The case against neuropsychoanalysis. On fallacies underlying psychoanalysis' latest scientific trend and its negative impact on psychoanalytic discourse", ''[[The International Journal of Psychoanalysis]]'', Vol. 88, Issue 1, pp. 19–40, February 2007.</ref> Solms and his colleagues have argued for neuro-scientific findings being "broadly consistent" with Freudian theories pointing out brain structures relating to Freudian concepts such as libido, drives, the unconscious, and repression.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lambert | first1 = Anthony J. | last2 = Good | first2 = Kimberly S. | last3 = Kirk | first3 = Ian J. | year = 2009 | title = Testing the repression hypothesis: Effects of emotional valence on memory suppression in the think&nbsp;– No think task | journal = Conscious Cognition | volume = 19 | issue = 1| pages = 281–93 | doi = 10.1016/j.concog.2009.09.004 | pmid = 19804991 | s2cid = 32958143 }}</ref><!-- so was this ever printed? that's nearly six years ago ---><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Depue | first1 = Brenden E | last2 = Curran | first2 = Tim | last3 = Banich | first3 = Maria T | year = 2007 | title = Prefrontal regions orchestrate suppression of emotional memories via a two-phase process | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17626877/ | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 317 | issue = 5835 | pages = 215–19 | doi = 10.1126/science.1139560 | pmid = 17626877 | bibcode = 2007Sci...317..215D | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170922213218/http://psych.colorado.edu/~tcurran/depue_curran_banich_2007.pdf | archive-date = 22 September 2017| citeseerx = 10.1.1.561.1627 | s2cid = 1616027 }}</ref> Neuroscientists who have endorsed Freud's work include [[David Eagleman]] who believes that Freud "transformed psychiatry" by providing "the first exploration of the way in which hidden states of the brain participate in driving thought and behavior"<ref>Eagleman, David ''Incognito: The Secret Lives of the Brain'' Edinburgh: Canongate, 2011, p. 17</ref> and Nobel laureate [[Eric Kandel]] who argues that "psychoanalysis still represents the most coherent and intellectually satisfying view of the mind."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kandel | first1 = ER | year = 1999 |url= http://www.columbia.edu/itc/biology/pollack/w4065/client_edit/readings/kandel_1999.pdf | title = Biology and the future of psychoanalysis: a new intellectual framework for psychiatry revisited | doi = 10.1176/ajp.156.4.505 | pmid = 10200728 | journal = American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 156 | issue = 4| pages = 505–24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060922234529/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/biology/pollack/w4065/client_edit/readings/kandel_1999.pdf | archive-date = 22 September 2006 }}</ref>

===Philosophy===
{{see also|Freudo-Marxism}}
[[File:Herbert Marcuse in Newton, Massachusetts 1955.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Herbert Marcuse]] saw similarities between psychoanalysis and [[Marxism]].]]

Psychoanalysis has been interpreted as both radical and conservative. By the 1940s, it had come to be seen as conservative by the European and American intellectual community. Critics outside the psychoanalytic movement, whether on the political left or right, saw Freud as a conservative. Fromm had argued that several aspects of psychoanalytic theory served the interests of political reaction in his ''[[The Fear of Freedom]]'' (1942), an assessment confirmed by sympathetic writers on the right. In ''[[Freud: The Mind of the Moralist]]'' (1959), [[Philip Rieff]] portrayed Freud as a man who urged men to make the best of an inevitably unhappy fate, and admirable for that reason. In the 1950s, [[Herbert Marcuse]] challenged the then prevailing interpretation of Freud as a conservative in ''[[Eros and Civilization]]'' (1955), as did [[Lionel Trilling]] in ''Freud and the Crisis of Our Culture'' and [[Norman O. Brown]] in ''[[Life Against Death]]'' (1959).<ref>{{cite book |author=Robinson, Paul |title=The Freudian Left |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca and London |year=1990 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/freudianleftwilh0000robi/page/147 147–49] |isbn=978-0-8014-9716-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/freudianleftwilh0000robi/page/147 }}</ref> ''Eros and Civilization'' helped make the idea that Freud and [[Karl Marx]] were addressing similar questions from different perspectives credible to the left. Marcuse criticized neo-Freudian revisionism for discarding seemingly pessimistic theories such as the death instinct, arguing that they could be turned in a utopian direction. Freud's theories also influenced the [[Frankfurt School]] and [[critical theory]] as a whole.<ref>Jay, Martin. ''The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996, pp. 86–112.</ref>

Freud has been compared to Marx by Reich, who saw Freud's importance for psychiatry as parallel to that of Marx for economics,<ref>{{cite book |author=Reich, Wilhelm |title=People in Trouble |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleintroublev02reic |url-access=registration |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |location=New York |year=1976 |page=[https://archive.org/details/peopleintroublev02reic/page/53 53] |isbn=978-0-374-51035-0 }}</ref> and by Paul Robinson, who sees Freud as a revolutionary whose contributions to twentieth-century thought are comparable in importance to Marx's contributions to the nineteenth-century thought.<ref>Robinson, Paul. ''The Freudian Left: Wilhelm Reich, Geza Roheim, Herbert Marcuse''. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1990, p. 7</ref> Fromm calls Freud, Marx, and Einstein the "architects of the modern age", but rejects the idea that Marx and Freud were equally significant, arguing that Marx was both far more historically important and a finer thinker. Fromm nevertheless credits Freud with permanently changing the way human nature is understood.<ref>Fromm, Erich. ''Beyond the Chains of Illusion: My Encounter with Marx & Freud''. London: Sphere Books, 1980, p. 11</ref> [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]] write in ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1972) that psychoanalysis resembles the [[Russian Revolution]] in that it became corrupted almost from the beginning. They believe this began with Freud's development of the theory of the Oedipus complex, which they see as idealist.<ref>Deleuze, Gilles & Guattari, Félix. ''Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992, p. 55.</ref>

[[Jean-Paul Sartre]] critiques Freud's theory of the unconscious in ''[[Being and Nothingness]]'' (1943), claiming that consciousness is essentially self-conscious.<ref name=Baldwin>{{cite book |author=Thomas Baldwin |editor=Ted Honderich |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1995 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond/page/792 792] |isbn=978-0-19-866132-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond/page/792 }}</ref> [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]] considers Freud to be one of the anticipators of [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]],<ref>Priest, Stephen. ''Merleau-Ponty''. New York: Routledge, 2003, p. 28</ref> while [[Theodor W. Adorno]] considers [[Edmund Husserl]], the founder of phenomenology, to be Freud's philosophical opposite, writing that Husserl's polemic against psychologism could have been directed against psychoanalysis.<ref>Adorno, Theodor W. ''Against Epistemology: A Metacritique. Studies in Husserl and the Phenomenological Antinomies''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1985, p. 96</ref> [[Paul Ricœur]] sees Freud as one of the three "[[masters of suspicion]]", alongside Marx and Nietzsche,<ref name=Ricoeur>{{cite book |last=Ricoeur |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Ricœur |others=Denis Savage (transl.) |title=Freud and Philosophy. An Essay on Interpretation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oHXFRv7SUrcC |location=[[New Haven, Connecticut]] |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |orig-year=1970 |date=2008 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oHXFRv7SUrcC&pg=PA33 33] |isbn=978-81-208-3305-0}}</ref> for their unmasking 'the lies and [[illusion]]s of [[consciousness]]'.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/mcjournal/article/viewArticle/431 |first=Rita |last=Felski |author-link=Rita Felski |title=Critique and the Hermeneutics of Suspicion |journal=M/C Journal |volume=15 |number=1 |year=2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323062432/http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/mcjournal/article/viewArticle/431 |archive-date=23 March 2016|doi=10.5204/mcj.431|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ricœur and [[Jürgen Habermas]] have helped create a "[[Hermeneutics|hermeneutic]] version of Freud", one which "claimed him as the most significant progenitor of the shift from an objectifying, empiricist understanding of the human realm to one stressing subjectivity and interpretation."<ref name=Robinson>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Paul |title=Freud and His Critics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QOW1UW5exz4C |year=1993 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=[[Oakland, California]] |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QOW1UW5exz4C&pg=PA14 14] |isbn=978-0-520-08029-4}}</ref> [[Louis Althusser]] drew on Freud's concept of [[overdetermination]] for his reinterpretation of Marx's ''[[Das Kapital|Capital]]''.<ref name=Cleaver>{{cite book |author=Cleaver, Harry |title=Reading Capital Politically |url=https://archive.org/details/readingcapitalpo00harr |url-access=registration |publisher=Ak Press |location=Leeds |year=2000 |page=[https://archive.org/details/readingcapitalpo00harr/page/50 50] |isbn=978-1-902593-29-6}}</ref> [[Jean-François Lyotard]] developed a theory of the unconscious that reverses Freud's account of the dream-work.<ref>Dufresne, Todd. ''Tales from the Freudian Crypt: The Death Drive in Text and Context''. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2000, p. 130.</ref>

Several scholars see Freud as parallel to [[Plato]], writing that they hold nearly the same theory of dreams and have similar theories of the tripartite structure of the human soul or personality, even if the hierarchy between the parts of the soul is almost reversed.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Kahn |first= Charles H. |author-link= Charles H. Kahn |title= Plato's Theory of Desire |journal=[[The Review of Metaphysics]] |volume= 41 |issue= 1 |year= 1987 |pages= 77–103
 |quote= ...{{nbsp}}Plato is perhaps the only major philosopher to anticipate some of the central discoveries of twentieth-century depth psychology, which is, of Freud and his school;{{nbsp}}... |issn= 0034-6632 |jstor= 20128559 |url= https://philpapers.org/archive/KAHPTO.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190520124559/https://philpapers.org/archive/KAHPTO.pdf |archive-date = 20 May 2019}}</ref><ref>" for Freud the basic nature of our mind is the appetite-id part, which is the main source for agency, for Plato, it is the other way around: we are divine, and reason is the essential nature and the origin of our agencies which together with the emotions temper the extreme and disparate tendencies of our behavior." Calian, Florian. [https://www.scribd.com/doc/115919845/Plato-s-Psychology-and-Freud ''Plato's Psychology of Action and the Origin of Agency''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525035710/http://www.scribd.com/doc/115919845/Plato-s-Psychology-and-Freud |date=25 May 2013 }}. Affectivity, Agency (2012), p. 21.</ref> [[Ernest Gellner]] argues that Freud's theories are an inversion of Plato's. Whereas Plato saw a hierarchy inherent in the nature of reality and relied upon it to validate norms, Freud was a naturalist who could not follow such an approach. Both men's theories drew a parallel between the structure of the human mind and that of society, but while Plato wanted to strengthen the super-ego, which Gellner compared to the aristocracy, Freud wanted to strengthen the ego, which corresponded to the middle class.<ref name="Gellner140">Gellner, Ernest. ''The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason''. London: Fontana Press, 1993, pp. 140–43.</ref> [[Paul Vitz]] compares Freudian psychoanalysis to [[Thomism]], noting St. Thomas's belief in the existence of an "unconscious consciousness" and his "frequent use of the word and concept 'libido' – sometimes in a more specific sense than Freud, but always in a manner in agreement with the Freudian use." Vitz suggests that Freud may have been unaware his theory of the unconscious was reminiscent of [[Aquinas]].<ref name=Vitzpages5354/>

===Literature and literary criticism===
The poem "In Memory of Sigmund Freud" was published by [[W. H. Auden]] in his 1940 collection ''[[Another Time (book)|Another Time]]''. Auden describes Freud as having created "a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://poets.org/poem/memory-sigmund-freud|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414133136/https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poem/memory-sigmund-freud|title=In Memory of Sigmund Freud by W. H. Auden – Poems &#124; Academy of American Poets|first=Academy of American|last=Poets|archive-date=14 April 2016|website=poets.org}}</ref><ref>Alexander, Sam, [https://web.archive.org/web/20100710010707/http://modernism.research.yale.edu/wiki/index.php/In_Memory_of_Sigmund_Freud "In Memory of Sigmund Freud"] (undated); and Thurschwell, P. ''Sigmund Freud'' London: Routledge, 2009, p. 1.</ref>

Literary critic [[Harold Bloom]] has been influenced by Freud.<ref>Bolla, Peter de. ''Harold Bloom: Towards Historical Rhetorics''. London: Routledge, 1988, p. 19</ref> [[Camille Paglia]] has also been influenced by Freud, whom she calls "Nietzsche's heir" and one of the greatest sexual psychologists in literature, but has rejected the scientific status of his work in her ''[[Sexual Personae]]'' (1990), writing, "Freud has no rivals among his successors because they think he wrote science, when in fact he wrote art."<ref>Paglia, Camille. ''Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson''. London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990, pp. 2, 228.</ref>

===Feminism===
[[File:Betty Friedan 1960.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Shoulder high portrait of a forty-year-old woman with short brownish hair wearing a buttoned sweater|[[Betty Friedan]] criticizes Freud's view of women in her 1963 book ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]''.<ref name=Friedan/>]]
The decline in Freud's reputation has been attributed partly to the revival of [[feminism]].<ref>P. Robinson, ''Freud and His Critics'', 1993, pp. 1–2.</ref> [[Simone de Beauvoir]] criticizes psychoanalysis from an [[Existentialism|existentialist]] standpoint in ''[[The Second Sex]]'' (1949), arguing that Freud saw an "original superiority" in the male that is in reality socially induced.<ref name=Mitchell/> [[Betty Friedan]] criticizes Freud and what she considered his Victorian view of women in ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'' (1963).<ref name=Friedan>Friedan, Betty. ''The Feminine Mystique''. W.W. Norton, 1963, pp. 166–94</ref> Freud's concept of [[penis envy]] was attacked by [[Kate Millett]], who in ''[[Sexual Politics]]'' (1970) accused him of confusion and oversights.<ref>Millett, Kate. ''Sexual Politics''. University of Chicago Press, 2000, pp. 176–203</ref> In 1968, [[Anne Koedt]] wrote in her essay ''[[The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm]]:'' <blockquote>It was Freud's feelings about women's secondary and inferior relationship to men that formed the basis for his theories on female sexuality. Once having laid down the law about the nature of our sexuality, Freud not so strangely discovered a tremendous problem of [[frigidity]] in women. His recommended cure for a frigid woman was psychiatric care. She was suffering from failure to mentally adjust to her 'natural' role as a woman.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Koedt|first=Anne|date=1970|title=The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm by Anne Koedt|url=http://www.uic.edu/orgs/cwluherstory/CWLUArchive/vaginalmyth.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106211856/http://www.uic.edu/orgs/cwluherstory/CWLUArchive/vaginalmyth.html|archive-date=6 January 2013|access-date=29 December 2020}}</ref></blockquote> [[Naomi Weisstein]] writes that Freud and his followers erroneously thought his "years of intensive clinical experience" added up to scientific rigor.<ref>{{cite book|author=Weisstein, Naomi|editor=Schneir, Miriam|title=Feminism in Our Time|publisher=Vintage|year=1994|chapter=Kinder, Küche, Kirche as Scientific Law: Psychology Constructs the Female|isbn=978-0-679-74508-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/feminisminourtim0000unse/page/217 217]|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/feminisminourtim0000unse/page/217}}</ref>

Freud is also criticized by [[Shulamith Firestone]] and [[Eva Figes]]. In ''[[The Dialectic of Sex]]'' (1970), Firestone argues that Freud was a "poet" who produced metaphors rather than literal truths; in her view, Freud, like feminists, recognized that sexuality was the crucial problem of modern life, but ignored the social context. Firestone interprets Freud's "metaphors" in terms of the facts of power within the family. Figes tries in ''Patriarchal Attitudes'' (1970) to place Freud within a "[[history of ideas]]". [[Juliet Mitchell]] defends Freud against his feminist critics in ''Psychoanalysis and Feminism'' (1974), accusing them of misreading him and misunderstanding the implications of psychoanalytic theory for feminism. Mitchell helped introduce English-speaking feminists to Lacan.<ref name=Mitchell>Mitchell, Juliet. ''Psychoanalysis and Feminism: A Radical Reassessment of Freudian Psychoanalysis''. London: Penguin Books, 2000, pp. xxix, 303–56</ref> Mitchell is criticized by [[Jane Gallop]] in ''The Daughter's Seduction'' (1982). Gallop compliments Mitchell for her criticism of feminist discussions of Freud but finds her treatment of Lacanian theory lacking.<ref>Gallop, Jane. ''The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1992</ref>

Some French feminists, among them [[Julia Kristeva]] and [[Luce Irigaray]], have been influenced by Freud as interpreted by Lacan.<ref>Gallop, Jane & Burke, Carolyn, in Eisenstein, Hester & Jardine, Alice (eds.). ''The Future of Difference''. New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 1987, pp. 106–08</ref><ref>Whitford, Margaret. ''Luce Irigaray: Philosophy in the Feminine''. London and New York: Routledge, 1991, pp. 31–32</ref>

Psychologist [[Carol Gilligan]] writes that "The penchant of developmental theorists to project a masculine image, and one that appears frightening to women, goes back at least to Freud." She sees Freud's criticism of women's sense of justice reappearing in the work of [[Jean Piaget]] and [[Lawrence Kohlberg]]. Gilligan notes that [[Nancy Chodorow]], in contrast to Freud, attributes sexual difference not to anatomy but to the fact that male and female children have different early social environments. Chodorow, writing against the masculine bias of psychoanalysis, "replaces Freud's negative and derivative description of female psychology with a positive and direct account of her own."<ref>Gilligan, Carol. ''In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development''. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England: Harvard University Press, 1982, pp. 6–8, 18</ref>

In her analysis of Freud's work on religion in relation to gender, [[Judith Van Herik]] noted that Freud paired femininity and the concept of weakness with Christianity and wish fulfillment while associating masculinity and renunciation with Judaism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Soble |first=Alan |date=1987 |title=Review of Freud on Femininity and Faith |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40036410 |journal=International Journal for Philosophy of Religion |volume=22 |issue=1/2 |pages=99–102 |jstor=40036410 |issn=0020-7047}}</ref>

[[Toril Moi]] has developed a feminist perspective on psychoanalysis proposing that it is a discourse that "attempts to understand the psychic consequences of three universal traumas: the fact that there are others, the fact of sexual difference, and the fact of death".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Moi | first1 = Toril | author-link = Toril Moi | year = 2004 | title = From Femininity to Finitude: Freud, Lacan, and Feminism, again | url = http://www.torilmoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/MOI_FEMININITY.PDF | journal = Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | page = 871 | doi = 10.1086/380630 | s2cid = 146342669 | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160623200809/http://www.torilmoi.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/MOI_FEMININITY.PDF | archive-date = 23 June 2016}}</ref> She replaces Freud's term of castration with [[Stanley Cavell|Stanley Cavell's]] concept of "victimization" which is a more universal term that applies equally to both sexes.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Claim of Reason: Wittgenstein, Skepticism, Morality and Tragedy|url = https://archive.org/details/claimreasonwittg00cave|url-access = limited|last = Cavell|first = Stanley| author-link=Stanley Cavell |publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1999|location = New York|pages = [https://archive.org/details/claimreasonwittg00cave/page/n137 111] and 431|isbn = 978-0-19-513107-9}}</ref> Moi regards this concept of human finitude as a suitable replacement for both castration and sexual difference as the traumatic "discovery of our separate, sexed, mortal existence" and how both men and women come to terms with it.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Claim of Reason: Wittgenstein, Skepticism, Morality, and Tragedy|url = https://archive.org/details/claimreasonwittg00cave|url-access = limited|last = Cavell|first = Stanley|author-link=Stanley Cavell |publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1999|location = New York|page = [https://archive.org/details/claimreasonwittg00cave/page/n457 431]|isbn = 978-0-19-513107-9}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
Sigmund Freud is the subject of three major films or TV series, the first of which was 1962's'' [[Freud: The Secret Passion]]'' starring [[Montgomery Clift]] as Freud, directed by [[John Huston]] from a revision of a script by an uncredited [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. The film is focused on Freud's early life from 1885 to 1890 and combines multiple case studies of Freud into single ones, and multiple friends of his into single characters.<ref>Holland, Norman N. (1994). [http://www.asharperfocus.com/Freud.html John Huston, ''Freud'', 1962] (adapted essay from an earlier version published in ''How to See Huston's Freud: Perspectives on John Huston'', Ed. Stephen Cooper. Perspectives on Film Series. New York: G. K. Hall, 1994. 164-83.)</ref>

In 1984, the [[BBC]] produced the six-episode mini-series [[Freud (miniseries)|''Freud: the Life of a Dream'']] starring [[David Suchet]].<ref>{{IMDb title|0135093|Freud}}</ref>

The stage play ''The Talking Cure'' and subsequent film ''[[A Dangerous Method]]'' focus on the conflict between Freud and [[Carl Jung]]. Both are written by [[Christopher Hampton]] and are partly based on the nonfiction book ''A Most Dangerous Method'' by [[John Kerr (author)|John Kerr]]. [[Viggo Mortensen]] plays Freud and [[Michael Fassbender]] plays Jung.<ref>Dee Jefferson: [http://www.thebrag.com/2012/08/14/film-interview-jeremy-thomas/ ''Jeremy Thomas: The Lone Ranger''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120903100717/http://www.thebrag.com/2012/08/14/film-interview-jeremy-thomas/ |date=3 September 2012 }}, interview with Jeremy Thomas on thebrag.com, 14 August 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2012.</ref>

More fanciful employments of Freud in fiction are ''[[The Seven-Per-Cent Solution]]'' by [[Nicholas Meyer]], which centers on an encounter between Freud and the fictional detective [[Sherlock Holmes]], with a main part of the plot seeing Freud helping Holmes overcome his cocaine addiction.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bunson|first=Matthew|author-link=Matthew Bunson |title=Encyclopedia Sherlockiana |year=1997 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |page=227 |isbn=0-02-861679-0}}</ref> The 2020 Austrian-German series [[Freud (TV series)|''Freud'']] involves a young Freud solving murder mysteries.<ref name=Db>{{cite news|newspaper=[[Daily Beast]]|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/netflixs-freud-depicts-sigmund-freud-as-a-horny-coked-out-demon-hunter|title=Netflix's 'Freud' Depicts Sigmund Freud as a Horny, Coked-Out Demon Hunter|last=Schager|first=Nick|date=23 March 2020}}</ref> The series has been criticized for having Freud be helped by a [[Mediumship|medium]] with real paranormal powers, when in reality Freud was quite skeptical of the paranormal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/tv/freud/s01|title=Freud: Season 1|website=[[Rotten Tomatoes]]|access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |first=Adrian |last=Horton |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2020/mar/23/freud-netflix-review-historical-fiction-thriller |title=Freud review – Netflix revisionist drama is a ridiculous coked-up mess|date=23 March 2020}}</ref> Freud also helps to solve a murder case in the 2006 novel ''[[The Interpretation of Murder]]'' by [[Jed Rubenfeld]].<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |first=Maslin |last=Janet |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/31/books/31masl.html |title=A New York Murder Mystery With Freud at the Center |date=31 August 2006 |access-date=27 May 2022}}</ref>

[[Mark St. Germain]]'s 2009 play ''Freud's Last Session'' imagines a meeting between [[C. S. Lewis]], aged 40, and Freud, aged 83, at Freud's house in Hampstead, London, in 1939, as the Second World War is about to break out. The play is focused on the two men discussing religion and whether it should be seen as a sign of neurosis.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tu95z2HrufQC |title=Freud's Last Session |last=Germain |first=Mark St |date=2010 |publisher=Dramatists Play Service, Inc. |isbn=978-0-8222-2493-8}}</ref> The play is inspired by the 2003 nonfiction book ''The Question of God: C. S. Lewis and Sigmund Freud Debate God, Love, Sex, and the Meaning of Life'' by [[Armand Nicholi]] which also inspired a four-part [[PBS]] series.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0_C1-fUGLgC |title = The Question of God: C. S. Lewis and Sigmund Freud Debate God, Love, Sex, and the Meaning of Life|isbn = 978-0-7432-4785-6|last1 = Nicholi|first1 = Armand|date = 7 August 2003| publisher=Simon and Schuster }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/questionofgod/|title=The Question of God &#124; PBS|website=pbs.org}}</ref>

Freud is employed to more comic effect in the 1983 film [[Lovesick (1983 film)|''Lovesick'']] in which [[Alec Guinness]] plays Freud's ghost who gives love advice to a modern psychiatrist played by [[Dudley Moore]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D42m3IIrEDoC&pg=PA107|title=Psychiatry and the Cinema |first1=Glen O. |last1=Gabbard |first2=Krin |last2=Gabbard |publisher=[[American Psychiatric Association]] |location=Washington, D.C.|edition=2nd|year=1999|isbn=978-0-88048-964-5|page=107}}</ref> Freud is also presented in a comedic light in the 1989 film, ''[[Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure]]''. Portrayed by [[Rod Loomis]], Freud is one of several historical figures recruited by the film's time-traveling lead characters to assist them in passing their high school history class presentation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/bill-teds-excellent-adventure-happened-actors-behind-historical-figures-162833834.html |title='Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure': What happened to the actors behind the historical figures? |last=Tilly|first=Chris|publisher=Yahoo Entertainment |date=15 February 2019 |website=Yahoo |access-date=9 December 2020}}</ref>

==Works==
{{Main|Sigmund Freud bibliography}}

===Books===
* 1891 ''[[On Aphasia]]''
* 1895 ''[[Studies on Hysteria]]'' (co-authored with [[Josef Breuer]])
* 1899 ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]''
* 1901 ''On Dreams'' (abridged version of ''The Interpretation of Dreams'')
* 1904 ''[[The Psychopathology of Everyday Life]]''
* 1905 ''[[Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious]]''
* 1905 ''[[Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality]]''
* 1907 ''[[Delusion and Dream in Jensen's Gradiva]]''
* 1910 ''Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis''
* 1910 ''[[Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood]]''
* 1913 ''[[Totem and Taboo|Totem and Taboo: Resemblances between the Psychic Lives of Savages and Neurotics]]''
* 1915–17 ''[[Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis]]''
* 1920 ''[[Beyond the Pleasure Principle]]''
* 1921 ''[[Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego]]''
* 1923 ''[[The Ego and the Id]]''
* 1926 ''Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety''
* 1926 ''[[The Question of Lay Analysis]]''
* 1927 ''[[The Future of an Illusion]]''
* 1930 ''[[Civilization and Its Discontents]]''
* 1933 ''New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis''
* 1939 ''[[Moses and Monotheism]]''
* 1940 ''[[An Outline of Psychoanalysis]]''
* 1967 ''Thomas Woodrow Wilson: A Psychological Study'', with William C. Bullit

===Case histories===
* 1905 Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria (the [[Dora (case study)|Dora]] case history)
* 1909 Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-Year-Old Boy (the [[Herbert Graf|Little Hans]] case history)
* 1909 Notes upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis (the [[Rat Man]] case history)
* 1911 Psycho-Analytic Notes on an Autobiographical Account of a Case of Paranoia (the [[Daniel Paul Schreber|Schreber]] case)
* 1918 From the History of an Infantile Neurosis (the [[Sergei Pankejeff|Wolfman]] case history)
* 1920 The Psychogenesis of a Case of Homosexuality in a Woman<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lacanianworks.net/?p=408 |title=The Psychogenesis of a case of Homosexuality in a Woman: 1920: Sigmund Freud |publisher=Lacanianworks.net |access-date=20 August 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031160343/http://www.lacanianworks.net/?p=408 |archive-date=31 October 2014}}</ref>
* 1923 A Seventeenth-Century Demonological Neurosis (the [[Christoph Haizmann|Haizmann]] case)

===Papers on sexuality===
* 1906 My Views on the Part Played by Sexuality in the Aetiology of the Neuroses
* 1908 ''[["Civilized" Sexual Morality and Modern Nervous Illness]]''
* 1910 A Special Type of Choice of Object made by Men
* 1912 Types of Onset of Neurosis
* 1912 The Most Prevalent Form of Degradation in Erotic Life
* 1913 The Disposition to Obsessional Neurosis
* 1915 A Case of Paranoia Running Counter to the Psycho-Analytic Theory of the Disease
* 1919 A Child is Being Beaten: A Contribution to the Origin of Sexual Perversions
* 1922 [[Medusa's Head]]
* 1922 Some Neurotic Mechanisms in Jealousy, Paranoia and Homosexuality
* 1923 Infantile Genital Organisation
* 1924 The Dissolution of the Oedipus Complex
* 1925 Some Psychical Consequences of the Anatomical Distinction between the Sexes
* 1927 Fetishism
* 1931 Female Sexuality
* 1933 Femininity
* 1938 The Splitting of the Ego in the Process of Defence

===Autobiographical papers===
* 1899 An Autobiographical Note
* 1914 [[The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement|On the History of the Psychoanalytic Movement]]
* 1925 An Autobiographical Study (1935 Revised edition with Postscript).

===The Standard Edition===
''[[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud]]''. Translated from the German under the general editorship of [[James Strachey]], in collaboration with [[Anna Freud]], assisted by [[Alix Strachey]], [[Alan Tyson]], and Angela Richards. 24 volumes, London: [[Hogarth Press]] and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1953–1974.
* Vol. I Pre-Psycho-Analytic Publications and Unpublished Drafts (1886–1899).
* Vol. II Studies in Hysteria (1893–1895). By Josef Breuer and S. Freud.
* Vol. III Early Psycho-Analytic Publications (1893–1899)
* Vol. IV The Interpretation of Dreams (I) (1900)
* Vol. V The Interpretation of Dreams (II) and On Dreams (1900–1901)
* Vol. VI The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901)
* Vol. VII A Case of Hysteria, Three Essays on Sexuality and Other Works (1901–1905)
* Vol. VIII Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious (1905)
* Vol. IX Jensen's 'Gradiva,' and Other Works (1906–1909)
* Vol. X The Cases of 'Little Hans' and the Rat Man' (1909)
* Vol. XI Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, Leonardo and Other Works (1910)
* Vol. XII The Case of Schreber, Papers on Technique and Other Works (1911–1913)
* Vol. XIII Totem and Taboo and Other Works (1913–1914)
* Vol. XIV On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement, Papers on Meta-psychology and Other Works (1914–1916)
* Vol. XV Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (Parts I and II) (1915–1916)
* Vol. XVI Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (Part III) (1916–1917)
* Vol. XVII An Infantile Neurosis and Other Works (1917–1919)
* Vol. XVIII Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Group Psychology and Other Works (1920–1922)
* Vol. XIX The Ego and the Id and Other Works (1923–1925)
* Vol. XX An Autobiographical Study, Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety, Lay Analysis and Other Works (1925–1926)
* Vol. XXI The Future of an Illusion, Civilization and its Discontents and Other Works (1927–1931)
* Vol. XXII New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis and Other Works (1932–1936)
* Vol. XXIII Moses and Monotheism, An Outline of Psycho-Analysis and Other Works (1937–1939)
* Vol. XXIV Indexes and Bibliographies (Compiled by Angela Richards,1974)

===The Revised Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud===
A revised and newly annotated edition of the Standard Edition texts was published in 2024 under the editorship of [[Mark Solms]].<ref>[https://rowman.com/sp/9781538175163/The-Revised-Standard-Edition-of-the-Complete-Psychological-Works-of-Sigmund-Freud-24-Volumes ''The Revised Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud'']</ref>

==Correspondence==
* ''Selected Letters of Sigmund Freud to [[Martha Bernays]]'', Ansh Mehta and Ankit Patel (eds.), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2015. {{ISBN|978-1-5151-3703-0}}
* ''Correspondence: Sigmund Freud, [[Anna Freud]]'', Cambridge: Polity 2014. {{ISBN|978-0-7456-4149-2}}
* '' The Letters of Sigmund Freud and [[Otto Rank]]: Inside Psychoanalysis'' (eds. E.J. Lieberman and Robert Kramer). Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012.
* ''The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to [[Wilhelm Fliess]], 1887–1904'', (editor and translator [[Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson]]), 1985, {{ISBN|978-0-674-15420-9}}
* ''The Sigmund Freud [[Carl Gustav Jung]] Letters'', Princeton University Press; Abr edition, 1994, {{ISBN|978-0-691-03643-4}}
* ''The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and [[Karl Abraham]], 1907–1925'', Karnac Books, 2002, {{ISBN|978-1-85575-051-7}}
* ''The Letters of Sigmund Freud to [[Jeanne Lampl-de Groot]], 1921–1939: Psychoanalysis and Politics in the Interwar Years''. Edited By&nbsp;Gertie Bögels. London: Routledge 2022.
* [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=978-0-674-15424-7 ''The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Ernest Jones, 1908–1939.''], Belknap Press, [[Harvard University Press]], 1995, {{ISBN|978-0-674-15424-7}}
* ''The Sigmund Freud – [[Ludwig Binswanger]] Correspondence 1908–1939'', London: Other Press 2003, {{ISBN|1-892746-32-8}}
* [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=978-0-674-17418-4 ''The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sándor Ferenczi, Vol 1, 1908–1914''], Belknap Press, [[Harvard University Press]], 1994, {{ISBN|978-0-674-17418-4}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=bREsyHmISRcC ''The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sándor Ferenczi, Vol 2, 1914–1919''], Belknap Press, [[Harvard University Press]], 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-674-17419-1}}
* [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=978-0-674-00297-5 ''The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sándor Ferenczi, Vol 3, 1920–1933''], Belknap Press, [[Harvard University Press]], 2000, {{ISBN|978-0-674-00297-5}}
* [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=978-0-674-52828-4 ''The Letters of Sigmund Freud to Eduard Silberstein, 1871–1881''], Belknap Press, [[Harvard University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0-674-52828-4}}
* ''Psycho-Analysis and Faith: The Letters of Sigmund Freud and [[Oskar Pfister]]''. Trans. Eric Mosbacher. Heinrich Meng and [[Ernst L. Freud]]. eds London: [[Hogarth Press]] and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1963.
* ''Sigmund Freud and [[Lou Andreas-Salome]]; Letters'', Harcourt Brace Jovanovich; 1972, {{ISBN|978-0-15-133490-2}}
* ''The Letters of Sigmund Freud and [[Arnold Zweig]]'', New York University Press, 1987, {{ISBN|978-0-8147-2585-6}}
* ''[https://www.public.asu.edu/~jmlynch/273/documents/FreudEinstein.pdf Why War?] Open Letters Between [[Einstein]] and Freud''. London: New Commonwealth, 1934.
* ''Letters of Sigmund Freud'', selected and edited by [[Ernst L. Freud]], New York: Basic Books, 1960, {{ISBN|978-0-486-27105-7}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Psychology}}
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud]]
* [[Sigmund Freud Archives]]
* [[Freud Museum]] (London)
* [[Sigmund Freud Museum (Vienna)]]
* [[A Clinical Lesson at the Salpêtrière]]
* [[Afterwardsness]]
* [[Freudian slip]]
* [[Freudo-Marxism]]
* [[School of Brentano]]
* [[Hedgehog's dilemma]]
* [[Narcissism of small differences]]
* [[Hidden personality]]
* [[Histrionic personality disorder]]
* [[Psychoanalytic literary criticism]]
* [[Psychodynamics]]
* [[Saul Rosenzweig]]
* [[Signorelli parapraxis]]
* [[The Freudian Coverup]]
* [[The Passions of the Mind]]
* [[Uncanny]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Alexander, Sam. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100710010707/http://modernism.research.yale.edu/wiki/index.php/In_Memory_of_Sigmund_Freud "In Memory of Sigmund Freud"], The Modernism Lab, Yale University. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
* Appignanesi, Lisa and Forrester, John. ''Freud's Women''. Penguin Books, 2000.
* Auden, W.H. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120625043704/http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/15543 "In Memory of Sigmund Freud"], 1940, poets.org. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
* Bloom, Harold. ''The Western Canon''. Riverhead Books, 1994.
* Blumenthal, Ralph. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070220074438/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/12/24/europe/web.1224freud.php "Hotel log hints at desire that Freud didn't repress"], ''International Herald Tribune'', 24 December 2006.
* {{cite book |last=Clark |first=Ronald W. |author-link=Ronald W. Clark |title=''Freud: The Man and the Cause'' |publisher=Random House Inc (T) |date=June 1980 |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-394-40983-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/freudmancause00clar }}
* Cohen, David. ''The Escape of Sigmund Freud''. JR Books, 2009.
* Cohen, Patricia. [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/25/weekinreview/25cohen.html "Freud Is Widely Taught at Universities, Except in the Psychology Department"], ''The New York Times'', 25 November 2007.
* Eissler, K.R. ''Freud and the Seduction Theory: A Brief Love Affair''. Int. Univ. Press, 2005.
* Eysenck, Hans. J. ''Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire''. Pelican Books, 1986.
* Ford, Donald H. & Urban, Hugh B. ''Systems of Psychotherapy: A Comparative Study''. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1965.
* Freud, Sigmund (1896c). ''The Aetiology of Hysteria''. Standard Edition 3.
* Freud, Sigmund and Bonaparte, Marie (ed.). ''The Origins of Psychoanalysis. Letters to Wilhelm Fliess: Drafts and Notes 1887–1902''. Kessinger Publishing, 2009.
* Fuller, Andrew R. ''Psychology and Religion: Eight Points of View'', Littlefield Adams, 1994.
* Gay, Peter. ''Freud: A Life for Our Time''. W. W. Norton & Company, 2006 (first published 1988).
* Gay, Peter (ed.) ''The Freud Reader''. W.W. Norton & Co., 1995.
* Gresser, Moshe. ''Dual Allegiance: Freud As a Modern Jew''. SUNY Press, 1994.
* Holt, Robert. ''Freud Reappraised: A Fresh Look at Psychoanalytic Theory''. The Guilford Press, 1989.
* Hothersall, D. ''History of Psychology''. 3rd edition, Mcgraw-Hill, 1995.
* Jones, E. ''Sigmund Freud: Life and Work Vol 1: The Young Freud 1856–1900, '' Hogarth Press, 1953.
* Jones, E. ''Sigmund Freud: Life and Work Vol 2: The Years of Maturity 1901–1919,'' Hogarth Press, 1955
* Jones, E. ''Sigmund Freud: Life and Work Vol 3: The Final Years 1919–1939,'' Hogarth Press, 1957
* Juergensmeyer, Mark. ''Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence''. University of California Press, 2004.
* Juergensmeyer, Mark. [https://books.google.com/books?id=W9lXRS43iXIC&pg=PA895 "Religious Violence"], in Peter B. Clarke (ed.). ''The Oxford Handbook of the Sociology of Religion''. Oxford University Press, 2009.
* Kovel, Joel. ''A Complete Guide to Therapy: From Psychoanalysis to Behaviour Modification''. Penguin Books, 1991 (first published 1976).
* Leeming, D.A.; Madden, Kathryn; and Marlan, Stanton. ''Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion''. Springer Verlag u. Co., 2004.
* Mannoni, Octave. ''Freud: The Theory of the Unconscious'', London: Verso, 2015 [1971].
* {{cite journal | last1 = Margolis | first1 = Deborah P. | year = 1989 | title = Freud and his Mother | url = http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=MPSA.014.0037A | journal = Modern Psychoanalsys | volume = 14 | pages = 37–56 }}
* Masson, Jeffrey M. (ed.). ''The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fless, 1887–1904.'' Harvard University Press, 1985.
* Meissner, William W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&pg=PA233 "Freud and the Bible"] in Bruce M. Metzger and Michael David Coogan (eds.). ''The Oxford Companion to the Bible''. Oxford University Press, 1993.
* [[Robert Michels (physician)|Michels, Robert]]. [http://americanmentalhealthfoundation.org/a.php?id=24 "Psychoanalysis and Psychiatry: A Changing Relationship"], American Mental Health Foundation. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
* Mitchell, Juliet. ''Psychoanalysis and Feminism: A Radical Reassessment of Freudian Psychoanalysis''. Penguin Books, 2000.
* Palmer, Michael. ''Freud and Jung on Religion''. Routledge, 1997.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Pigman | first1 = G.W. | year = 1995 | title = Freud and the history of empathy | journal = [[The International Journal of Psychoanalysis]] | volume = 76 | issue = 2| pages = 237–56 | pmid = 7628894 }}
* Rice, Emmanuel. ''Freud and Moses: The Long Journey Home''. SUNY Press, 1990.
* Roudinesco, Elisabeth. ''Jacques Lacan''. Polity Press, 1997.
* Sadock, Benjamin J. and Sadock, Virginia A. ''Kaplan and Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry''. 10th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.
* {{cite book |last=Sulloway |first=Frank J. |author-link=Frank Sulloway |title=Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Legend |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B7XcblnI620C |year=1992 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-32335-3 }}
* Tononi, Fabio, “The Aesthetics of Freud: Movement, Embodiment and Imagination”, ''Reti, saperi, linguaggi: Italian Journal of Cognitive Sciences'', 8: 1 (2021), pp. 125–154. https://www.rivisteweb.it/doi/10.12832/101348
* Vitz, Paul C. ''Sigmund Freud's Christian Unconscious''. The Guilford Press, 1988.
* Webster, Richard. ''Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science and Psychoanalysis.'' HarperCollins, 1995.
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{div col|colwidth=27em}}
* [[Norman O. Brown|Brown, Norman O.]] ''[[Life Against Death]]: The Psychoanalytical Meaning of History''. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, Second Edition 1985.
* Blauner, Andrew, ed. ''On the Couch: Writers Analyze Sigmund Freud'', Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2024. {{ISBN|9780691242439}}
* [[Frank Cioffi|Cioffi, Frank]]. ''Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience''. Peru, IL: Open Court, 1999.
* Cole, J. Preston. ''The Problematic Self in Kierkegaard and Freud''. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971.
* [[Frederick Crews|Crews, Frederick]]. ''[[The Memory Wars]]: Freud's Legacy in Dispute''. New York: The New York Review of Books, 1995.
* Crews, Frederick. ''Unauthorized Freud: Doubters Confront a Legend''. New York: Penguin Books, 1998.
* [[Todd Dufresne|Dufresne, Todd]]. ''Killing Freud: Twentieth-Century Culture and the Death of Psychoanalysis''. New York: Continuum, 2003.
* Dufresne, Todd, ed. ''Against Freud: Critics Talk Back''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007.
* [[Henri Ellenberger|Ellenberger, Henri]]. ''Beyond the Unconscious: Essays of Henri F. Ellenberger in the History of Psychiatry''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
* Ellenberger, Henri. ''[[The Discovery of the Unconscious]]: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry''. New York: Basic Books, 1970.
* Esterson, Allen. ''Seductive Mirage: An Exploration of the Work of Sigmund Freud''. Chicago: Open Court, 1993.
* [[Ernest Gellner|Gellner, Ernest]]. ''The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason''. London: Fontana Press, 1993.
* [[Adolf Grünbaum|Grünbaum, Adolf]]. ''[[The Foundations of Psychoanalysis]]: A Philosophical Critique''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
* Grünbaum, Adolf. ''Validation in the Clinical Theory of Psychoanalysis: A Study in the Philosophy of Psychoanalysis''. Madison, Connecticut: International Universities Press, 1993.
* Hale, Nathan G., Jr. ''Freud and the Americans: The Beginnings of Psychoanalysis in the United States, 1876–1917''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.
* Hale, Nathan G., Jr. ''The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917–1985''. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
* Hirschmüller, Albrecht. ''The Life and Work of Josef Breuer''. New York University Press, 1989.
* [[Carl Jung|Jung, Carl Gustav]]. ''The Collected Works of C. G. Jung Volume 4: Freud and Psychoanalysis''. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, 1961.
* Macmillan, Malcolm. ''Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1997.
* [[Herbert Marcuse|Marcuse, Herbert]]. ''[[Eros and Civilization]]: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud''. Boston: Beacon Press, 1974.
* [[Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson|Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff]]. ''[[The Assault on Truth]]: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory''. New York: Pocket Books, 1998.
* Nagorski, Andrew. ''Saving Freud: A Life in Vienna and an Escape to Freedom in London''. London: Icon, 2022
* [[Paul Ricœur|Ricœur, Paul]]. ''[[Freud and Philosophy]]: An Essay on Interpretation''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970.
* [[Philip Rieff|Rieff, Philip]]. ''[[Freud: The Mind of the Moralist]]''. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1961.
* [[Paul Roazen|Roazen, Paul]]. ''Freud and His Followers''. New York: Knopf, 1975, hardcover; trade paperback, Da Capo Press (22 March 1992), {{ISBN|978-0-306-80472-4}}.
* Roazen, Paul. ''Freud: Political and Social Thought''. London: Hogarth Press, 1969.
* Roth, Michael, ed. ''Freud: Conflict and Culture''. New York: Vintage, 1998.
* Schur, Max. ''Freud: Living and Dying''. New York: International Universities Press, 1972.
* [[David Stannard|Stannard, David E]]. ''Shrinking History: On Freud and the Failure of Psychohistory''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982.
* [[Richard Webster (British author)|Webster, Richard]]. ''[[Why Freud Was Wrong]]: Sin, Science and Psychoanalysis''. Oxford: The Orwell Press, 2005.
* [[Richard Wollheim|Wollheim, Richard]]. ''Freud''. Fontana, 1971.
* Wollheim, Richard, and James Hopkins, eds. ''Philosophical Essays on Freud''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
{{div col end}}
===Biographical works===
* {{cite book | last =Breger| first =Louis |author-link =Louis Breger| date =2001 | title = Freud: Darkness in the Midst of Vision | location =New York | publisher =Wiley }}
* {{cite book | last = Clark | first = Ronald W. | author-link =Ronald W. Clark| date = 1980 | title = Freud: the Man and His Cause | location = London | publisher = Jonathan Cape }}
* [[Frederick Crews|Crews, Frederick]] (2017). ''Freud: The Making of an Illusion''. New York: Metropolitan Books.
* {{cite book | last = Ferris | first = Paul |author-link =Paul Ferris (Welsh writer)| date = 1997 | title = Dr Freud: A Life | location = London| publisher = Sinclair-Stevenson }}
* {{cite book | last = Ffytche | first = Matt | date = 2022 | title = Sigmund Freud |series= Critical Lives| location = London | publisher = Reaktion Books }}
* {{cite book | last = Flem | first =Lydia | date = 2002 | title = Freud the Man: An Intellectual Biography | location = New York | publisher =Other Press }}
* [[Ernst Freud|Freud, Ernst L.]], Grubrich-Simitis, Ilse (eds.) (1976) ''Sigmund Freud: His Life in Pictures and Words'' New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
* Freud, Martin (1958) ''Sigmund Freud: Man and Father''. New York: Vanguard Press.
* {{cite book | last = Gay | first =Peter |author-link =Peter Gay| date = 2006|orig-date=1988 | edition = 2nd|title = [[Freud: A Life for Our Time]]| location =New York| publisher= W. W. Norton }}
* {{cite book | last = Jones | first = Ernest |author-link =Ernest Jones| date = 1953 | title =[[Sigmund Freud: Life and Work]]: Vol 1: The Young Freud 1856–1900 | location = London | publisher = Hogarth Press }}
* {{cite book | last = Jones | first = Ernest | date = 1955 | title = Sigmund Freud: Life and Work: Vol 2: The Years of Maturity 1901–1919| location = London | publisher = Hogarth Press }}
* {{cite book | last = Jones | first = Ernest | date = 1957 | title = Sigmund Freud: Life and Work: Vol 3: The Final Years 1919–1939| location = London | publisher = Hogarth Press }}
* {{cite book | last = Jones | first = Ernest | date = 1961 | title = Sigmund Freud: Life and Work | edition =Abridged | editor-last1=Trilling |editor-first1=Lionel |editor-link1=Lionel Trilling |editor-last2=Marcus |editor-first2=Stephen |editor-link2=Stephen Marcus| location =New York | publisher =Basic Books }}
* {{cite book | last =Kahr| first =Brett|author-link =|date =2021 | title =Freud's Pandemics: Surviving Global War, Spanish Flu and the Nazis| series= Freud Museum London Series| location =London | publisher =Karnac }}
*{{cite book | last = Nagorski | first = Andrew | date = 2022 | title =Saving Freud: A Life in Vienna and an Escape to Freedom in London | location = London | publisher = Icon Books}}
* {{cite book | last =Phillips | first =Adam |author-link =Adam Phillips (psychologist)| date = 2014 | title = Becoming Freud | location = New Haven, CT | publisher =Yale University Press }}
* {{cite book | last =Puner | first =Helen Walker | date =1947 | title =Freud: His Life and Mind | location =New York | publisher =Howell Soskin }}
* {{cite book | last = Roudinesco | first =Élisabeth |author-link =Élisabeth Roudinesco| date = 2016 | title = Freud: In His Time and Ours | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | publisher = Harvard University Press }}
* {{cite book | last = Schur | first =Max |author-link =Max Schur| date = 1972 | title = Freud: Living and Dying | location = London | publisher =Hogarth Press }}
* {{cite book | last =Sheppard | first = Ruth| date = 2012 | title =Explorer of the Mind: The Illustrated Biography of Sigmund Freud | location =London | publisher = Andre Deutsch }}
* {{cite book | last = Whitebook | first =Joel | date = 2017 | title = Freud: An Intellectual Biography | location =Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press }}

==External links==

{{sister project links|d=Q9215|c=Category:Sigmund Freud|s=Author:Sigismund Schlomo Freud|n=no|voy=no|wikt=Freudian|species=no|m=no|mw=no}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Freud,+Sigmund | name=Sigmund Freud}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Sigmund Schlomo Freud}}
* {{Librivox author |id=312}}
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/219848/Sigmund-Freud Sigmund Freud] at the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''

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{{s-bef|before=[[Patrick Hastings]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of People on the Cover of Time Magazine: 1920s|Cover of ''Time'' Magazine]]
|years=27 October 1924}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Thomas Lipton]]}}
{{s-bef|before=Leopold Ziegler}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Goethe Prize]]
|years=1930}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ricarda Huch]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Sigmund Freud|state=expanded}}
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Please do not include categories identifying Freud as a psychiatrist or a psychologist. Despite a popular misconception to the contrary, Freud was not a psychiatrist, and psychology was not his profession. Reliable sources identify Freud as a neurologist or a psychoanalyst; see for instance Arthur S. Reber and Emily Reber's The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology.
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