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S-125 Neva/Pechora

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(Redirected from SA-3)
"SA-3" redirects here. For the Apollo flight, see SA-3 (Apollo). For Railway coupling, see SA3 coupler. For other uses, see SA3 (disambiguation).
S-125 Neva
NATO reporting name: SA-3 Goa, SA-N-1 Goa
Peruvian Air Force Pechora.
Typeshort-range SAM system
Place of originSoviet Union
Service history
In service1961[1]–present
Used bySee list of present and former operators
WarsVietnam War
War of Attrition
Yom Kippur War
Angolan Civil War
Uganda–Tanzania War
Iran–Iraq War
Gulf War
NATO bombing of Yugoslavia
Syrian Civil War
2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
Tigray conflict
Russian Invasion of Ukraine[2]
Production history
DesignerAlmaz Central Design Bureau
Designed1950s
ManufacturerJSC Defense Systems (Pechora-M)
Produced1961–present
VariantsNeva, Pechora, Volna, Neva-M, Neva-M1, Volna-M, Volna-N, Volna-P, Pechora 2, Pechora 2M, Newa SC, Pechora-M

The S-125 Neva/Pechora (Russian: С-125 "Нева"/"Печора", NATO reporting name SA-3 Goa) is a Soviet surface-to-air missile system that was designed by Aleksei Isaev to complement the S-25 and S-75. It has a shorter effective range and lower engagement altitude than either of its predecessors and also flies slower, but due to its two-stage design it is more effective against more maneuverable targets. It is also able to engage lower flying targets than the previous systems, and being more modern it is much more resistant to ECM than the S-75. The 5V24 (V-600) missiles reach around Mach 3 to 3.5 in flight, both stages powered by solid fuel rocket motors. The S-125, like the S-75, uses radio command guidance. The naval version of this system has the NATO reporting name SA-N-1 Goa and original designation M-1 Volna (Russian Волна – wave).

Operational history

[edit]

Soviet Union

[edit]
A pair of S-125 missiles in transit.
Abandoned Soviet S-125 missile near Saare, Saaremaa, Estonia.

The S-125 was first deployed between 1961 and 1964 around Moscow, augmenting the S-25 and S-75 sites already ringing the city, as well as in other parts of the USSR. In 1964, an upgraded version of the system, the S-125M "Neva-M" and later S-125M1 "Neva-M1" was developed. The original version was designated SA-3A by the US DoD and the new Neva-M named SA-3B and (naval) SA-N-1B. The Neva-M introduced a redesigned booster and an improved guidance system. The S-125 was not used against U.S. forces in Vietnam, because the Soviets feared that China (after the souring of Sino-Soviet relations in 1960), through which most, if not all of the equipment meant for North Vietnam had to travel, would try to copy the missile.[citation needed]

Angola

[edit]

The FAPA-DAA acquired a significant number of S-125s, and these were encountered during the first strike ever flown by SAAF Mirage F.1s against targets in Angola – in June 1980. While the SAAF reported two aircraft were damaged by SAMs during this action, Angola claimed to have shot down four.[3]

On 7 June 1980, while attacking SWAPO's Tobias Haneko Training Camp during Operation Sceptic (Smokeshell), SAAF Major Frans Pretorius and Captain IC du Plessis, both flying Mirage F.1s, were hit by S-125s. Pretorius's aircraft was hit in a fuel line and he had to perform a deadstick landing at AFB Ondangwa. Du Plessis's aircraft sustained heavier damage and had to divert to Ruacana forward airstrip, where he landed with only the main undercarriage extended. Both aircraft were repaired and returned to service.[4]

Middle East

[edit]
S-125 on Egyptian ZIL-131 transporter vehicle (9T911), captured by the IDF during the Yom Kippur War.

The Soviets supplied several S-125s to the Arab states in the late 1960s and 1970s, most notably Egypt and Syria. The S-125 saw extensive action during the War of Attrition and the Yom Kippur War. During the latter, the S-125, along with the S-75 Dvina and 2K12 Kub, formed the backbone of the Egyptian air defence network. In Egypt, March–July 1970 Soviet battalions of S-125 17 Shooting (35 missiles) shot down nine Israeli and one Egyptian planes. General Muhammed Ali Hafez (Air defense forces commander in the Egyptian Army) was the first man in the world to reuse the launched missiles in creating new ones .[5][6][7] Israel recognized the 5 F-4 Phantoms in 1970 (1 more was W/O[8]) and in 1973 another 6.[7]

Iraq

[edit]
Remains of F-16C 87-257 as found by US ground forces in Iraq during Desert Storm. The canopy was recovered by US forces in the 2003 invasion.

During the disastrous Package Q Strike against downtown Baghdad on 19 January 1991, a USAF F-16 (serial 87-257) was shot down. The aircraft was struck by a S-125 just south of Baghdad. The pilot, Major Jeffrey Scott Tice, ejected safely but became a POW.[9] It was the 8th combat loss and the first daylight raid over Baghdad.[10]

Still photograph from a videotape of an Iraqi surface-to-air missile, believed to be a S-125, launched at a coalition aircraft in July 2001.[dubious – discuss]

Yugoslavia

[edit]

A Yugoslav Army 250th Air Defense Missile Brigade 3rd battery equipped with S-125 system shot down a F-117 Nighthawk stealth attack aircraft on March 27, 1999 during the Kosovo War (the only recorded downing of a stealth aircraft) near village Budjanovci, about 45 km from Belgrade. The pilot LT.COL. Darrell Patrick Zelko ejected and was later found by US search and rescue forces. An S-125 also shot down a NATO F-16 fighter on May 2 (its pilot; Lt. Col David L. Goldfein, the commander of 555th Fighter Squadron, managed to eject and was later rescued by a combat search-and-rescue (CSAR) mission).[11][12]

Syrian Civil War

[edit]

On 17 March 2015, a US MQ-1 Predator drone was shot down by a Syrian Air Defense Force S-125 missile while on an intelligence flight near the coastal town of Latakia.[13]

In December 2016, ISIS forces captured three S-125 launchers after they retook Palmyra from Syrian government troops.[14]

On April 14, 2018, American, British, and French forces launched a barrage of 103 air-to-surface and cruise missiles targeting eight Syrian military sites. The Russian military claimed that thirteen S-125 missiles launched in response destroyed five incoming missiles.[15] However, the American Department of Defense stated no Allied missiles were shot down.[16]

Russian invasion of Ukraine

[edit]

On 6 December 2022, a photo of Polish variant Newa-SC in Ukrainian service, likely made in summer, emerged in media.[17] Until then, there had been no info on supplying Newa-SC to Ukraine.

Description

[edit]

The S-125 is somewhat mobile, an improvement over the S-75 system. The missiles are typically deployed on fixed turrets containing two or four but can be carried ready-to-fire on ZIL trucks in pairs. Reloading the fixed launchers takes a few minutes.

Missile

[edit]
V-600
V-600 missiles on the S-125 quadruple launcher.
TypeSurface-to-air missile
Place of originSoviet Union
Production history
VariantsV-600, V-601
Specifications (V-601[19])
Mass953 kg
Length6,090 mm
Diameter375 mm
Wingspan2,200 mm
WarheadFrag-HE
Warhead weight60 kg
Detonation
mechanism
Proximity fuse[18]
PropellantSolid propellant rocket motor
Operational
range
35 kilometres (22 mi)
Flight altitude18,000 metres (59,000 ft)
Guidance
system
RF CLOS

The S-125 system uses two different missile versions and variants.

  • V-600 (or 5V24) has the smallest warhead with 60 kg of high explosive. It has a range of about 15 km.
  • V-601 (or 5V27): the upgraded S-125M (1970) system uses the 5V27 missile, with a length of 6.09 m, a wing span of 2,200 mm and a body diameter of 375 mm. This missile weighs 953 kg at launch, and has a 70 kg warhead containing 33 kg of HE and 4,500 fragments. The minimum range is 3.5 km, and the maximum is 35 km (with the Pechora 2A). The intercept altitudes are between 100 m and 18 km.[19] Other sources claim the intercept altitudes between 20 m and 14 km. The minimum range is 2.5 km, and the maximum is 22 km[7]
  • 5V27D: the S-125M1 (1978) system uses the 5V27D missile. In the early 1980s, each system used one or two radar simulators to survive antiradar missiles.[7]

Radars

[edit]

The launchers are accompanied by a command building or truck and three primary radar systems:

  • P-15 radar (NATO codename "Flat Face") or P-15M(2) (NATO codename "Squat Eye") 380 kW C-band target acquisition radar (also used by the 2K12 Kub and 9K33 Osa, range 250 km/155 miles)
  • SNR-125 (NATO codename "Low Blow") 250 kW I/D-band tracking, fire control and guidance radar (range 40 km/25 miles, second mode 80 km/50 miles) Its parts: An UV-10, 3 cm wavelength, narrow beam transmitter/receiver antenna; 2 pcs of UV-11, 3 cm wavelength, wide beam receiver antenna for target tracking, an UV-12, decimeter wavelength, missile command transmitter antenna and a 9Sh33A camera (optical channel).

The P-15 is mounted on a van (P-15M(2) on a taller mast for better performance against low-altitude targets) and also an IFF [Identifies Friend or Foe]), SNR-125 on a trailer and PRV-11 on a box-bodied trailer.

Variants and upgrades

[edit]
[edit]
ZIF-101 launcher of Volna system on the Kashin class destroyer Strogiy.

Work on a naval version M-1 Volna (SA-N-1) started in 1956, along with work on a land version. It was first mounted on a rebuilt Kotlin class destroyer (Project 56K) Bravyi and tested in 1962. In the same year, the system was accepted. The basic missile was a V-600 (or 4K90) (range: from 4 to 15 km, altitude: from 0.1 to 10 km). Fire control and guidance is carried out by 4R90 Yatagan radar, with five parabolic antennas on a common head. Only one target can be engaged at a time (or two, for ships fitted with two Volna systems). In case of emergency, Volna could be also used against naval targets, due to short response time.

The first launcher type was the two-missile ZIF-101, with a magazine for 16 missiles. In 1963 an improved two-missile launcher, ZIF-102, with a magazine for 32 missiles, was introduced to new ship classes. In 1967 Volna systems were upgraded to Volna-M (SA-N-1B) with V-601 (4K91) missiles (range: 4–22 km, altitude: 0.1–14 km).

In 1974 - 1976 some systems were modernized to Volna-P standard, with an additional TV target tracking channel and better resistance to jamming. Later, improved V-601M missiles were introduced, with lower minimal attack altitude against aerial targets (system Volna-N).

Some Indian frigates also carry the M-1 Volna system.

Modern upgrades

[edit]
Two S-125 dual missile launcher trailers.
Newa SC

Since Russia replaced all of its S-125 sites with S-300 systems, they decided to upgrade the S-125 systems being removed from service to make them more attractive to export customers.

  • Released in 2000, the Pechora-2 version features better range, multiple target engagement ability and a higher probability of kill (PK). The launcher is moved onto a truck allowing much shorter relocation times.
  • It is also possible to fire the Pechora-2M system against cruise missiles. Deployment time 25 minutes, protected from the active interference, and anti-radiation missiles (total in practical shooting)[20][21]

Early warning radar is replaced by anti-stealth[22][23] radar Kasta 2E2, target distance at 2.5–32 km, target altitude - 0.02–20 km, missile launchers can be positioned at up to 10 kilometers away from the control center.[citation needed] Speed up to 1000 m/s (target), Used rocket 5V27DE,[24] by weight the warhead + 50% range of flight splinters + 350%.[citation needed] Probability of hitting the target 1st rocket: at a distance up to 25 km - 0,72-0,99, detection range with the radar cross section = 2 sq meters about 100 km, with RCS = 0.15 sq m - about 50 km, with no interference. When using active jamming - 40 km.[25] ADMS "Pechora-2M" has the ability to interfacing with higher level command post and radar remote using telecode channels. Is equally effective at any time during the day and at night (optical location, daytime and nighttime, and also thermal imager) was awarded a contract to overhaul Egypt's S-125 SAM system. These refurbished weapons have been reintroduced as the S-125 Pechora 2M.[26]

  • In 2001, Poland began offering an upgrade to the S-125 known as the Newa SC. This replaced many analogue components with digital ones for improved reliability and accuracy. This upgrade also involves mounting the missile launcher on a WZT-1 tank chassis (a TEL), greatly improving mobility and also adds IFF capability and data links. Radar is mounted on an 8-wheeled heavy truck chassis (formerly used for Scud launchers).

Serbian modifications include terminal/camera homing from radar base.

Cuba also developed a similar upgrade to the Polish one, which was displayed in La Habana in 2006.[27]

  • Later the same year, the Russian version was upgraded again to the Pechora-M which upgraded almost all aspects of the system - the rocket motor, radar, guidance, warhead, fuse and electronics. There is an added laser/infra-red tracking device to allow launching of missiles without the use of the radar.

There is also a version of the S-125 available from Russia with the warhead replaced with telemetry instrumentation, for use as target drones.

  • In October 2010, Ukrainian Aerotechnica announced a modernized version of S-125 named S-125-2D Pechora.[28] As of 2018 according to the UkrOboronProm, the S-125 surface-to-air missile underwent an integrated modification of all elements, including modernization of missiles, as well as the use of a new radar station built on solid-state elements. The distance of the Ukrainian S-125 modernization's engagement area, 40 km, is greater than that of the Russian one.[citation needed]
  • The Vietnamese state-owned agency Viettel Aerospace Institute has unveiled a modernization version of S-125, designated as the S-125-VT. It is expected to enter Vietnamese Air Defence operation in the near future.[29][30]

Operators

[edit]
Operators
  Current
  Former
Simulated Soviet surface to air missile site at Nellis AFB

Current

[edit]
  •  Algeria − 12 S-125M Pechora-M and 24 S-125M1 Pechora-M1 batteries as of 2024[31]
  •  Angola − 12 S-125M1 Pechora-M1 batteries as of 2024[32]
  •  Armenia[33]
  •  Azerbaijan − 24 S-125-2TM Pechora-2TM batteries as of 2024[34]
  •  Bulgaria − S-125M Neva-M[35]
  •  Cuba − S-125M/M1 Pechora M/M1, some Pechora M1s are mounted on T-55 tank chassis[36]
  •  Egypt − 40 S-125-2M Pechora-2M and 120 S-125M Pechora-M batteries as of 2024[37]
  •  Ethiopia − 4 S-125M1 Pechora-M1 batteries as of 2024[38]
  •  India − S-125M Pechora-M[39]
  •  Kazakhstan − 3 S-125-1T batteries as of 2024[40]
  •  Kyrgyzstan − 8 S-125M1 Neva-M1 batteries as of 2024[41]
  •  Laos − 6 S-125M Pechora-M batteries as of 2024. Serviceability doubtful[42]
  •  Moldova − 3 S-125M1 Neva-M1 batteries as of 2024[43]
  •  Mongolia − 2+ S-125-2M Pechora-2M batteries as of 2024[44]
  •  Myanmar − S-125-2M Pechora-2M[45]
  •  North Korea− 20 S-125M1 Pechora-M1 batteries as of 2024. Serviceability doubtful[46]
  •  Peru[47]
  •  Poland − 14 S-125 Newa SC batteries as of 2024[48]
  •  Serbia − 6 S-125M Neva-M batteries as of 2024[49]
  •  Syria − S-125-2M Pechora-2M and S-125M/M1 Pechora-M/M1[50]
  •  South Sudan − 16 S-125 Pechora batteries as of 2024. Serviceability doubtful[51]
  •  Tajikistan − 3 S-125 Pechora-2M and 5 S-125M1 Neva-M1 batteries as of 2024[52]
  •  Turkmenistan − 4 S-125 Pechora-2M, 12 S-125M1 Neva-M1, and some S-125-2BM Pechora batteries as of 2024[53]
  •  Ukraine[54] − In 2022, Ukraine received an undisclosed number of S-125 Newa SC systems from Poland[55]
  •  Uzbekistan − 4 S-125-2M Pechora-2M and 10 S-125M1 Neva-M1 batteries as of 2024[56]
  •  Venezuela − 44 S-125 Pechora-2M batteries as of 2024[57]
  •  Vietnam − 30 S-125TM Pechora-2TM and 21 S-125M Pechora-M batteries as of 2024.[58] The S-125-VT modernized variant was reported to be in service in July 2024[59]
  •  Zambia − 6 S-125M Pechora-M batteries as of 2024[60]

Former

[edit]
[edit]
  • P-15 "Flat Face" radar.
    P-15 "Flat Face" radar.
  • SNR-125 "Low Blow" radar.
    SNR-125 "Low Blow" radar.
  • PRV-11 "Side Net" radar.
    PRV-11 "Side Net" radar.

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ "S-125 SA-3 GOA". Federation of American Scientists. Archived from the original on 2012-08-19. Retrieved 2012-09-16.
  2. ^ "Polish SA-3 Surface-To-Air Missiles Appear To Be In Ukrainian Forces' Hands". The Drive. 7 December 2022. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  3. ^ [1][permanent dead link‍]
  4. ^ Lord, Dick (2000). Vlamgat: The Story of the Mirage F1 in the South African Air Force. Covos-Day. ISBN 978-0-620-24116-8.
  5. ^ Зенитные ракетные войска в войнах во Вьетнаме и на Ближнем Востоке (в период 1965—1973 гг.). М.: Воениздат, 1980. С. 215
  6. ^ "Боевое применение зенитной ракетной системы С-125". Военно-патриотический сайт «Отвага» (in Russian). Archived from the original on 2017-07-15. Retrieved 2017-07-20.
  7. ^ a b c d "ЗРК С-125". pvo.guns.ru. Archived from the original on 2017-05-25. Retrieved 2017-07-20.
  8. ^ "Russia vs Israel". Archived from the original on 2019-08-01. Retrieved 2019-07-28.
  9. ^ "Pilot Tells Terror of Bailout, 46 Days as a POW : Military: Air Force Maj. Tice had his F-16 shot out from under him in a bomb run over Baghdad. After that, it got worse". Los Angeles Times. 1991-03-16. Retrieved 2020-01-10.
  10. ^ "Airframe Details for F-16 #87-0257". F-16.net. Archived from the original on 2013-07-07. Retrieved 2013-08-26.
  11. ^ Roberts, Chris. "Holloman commander recalls being shot down in Serbia" Archived 2009-03-28 at the Wayback Machine. F-16.net, 7 February 2007. Retrieved: 16 May 2008.
  12. ^ Anon. "F-16 Aircraft Database: F-16 Airframe Details for 88-0550" Archived 2008-10-13 at the Wayback Machine. F-16.net. Retrieved: 16 May 2008.
  13. ^ "air force lost predator was shot down in syria". Airforcetimes.com. 29 June 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
  14. ^ "ISIS has three surface-to-air missile launchers in Syria, US officials say". Fox News. 2016-12-15. Archived from the original on 2017-09-15. Retrieved 2017-07-20.
  15. ^ "Briefing by Russian Defence Ministry official Major General Igor Konashenkov (April 16, 2018) : Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation". eng.mil.ru. Archived from the original on 18 April 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
  16. ^ "Department of Defense Press Briefing by Pentagon Chief Spokesperson". U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE. Archived from the original on 22 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
  17. ^ "Polskie S-125 Newa-SC już bronią niebo Ukrainy". Militarny (in Polish). Retrieved 2022-12-07.
  18. ^ Carlo, Kopp (30 June 2009). "Almaz 5V24/5V27/S-125 Neva/Pechora / SA-3 Goa / Зенитный Ракетный Комплекс 5В24/5В27/С-125 Нева/Печора". Ausairpower.net: 1. Archived from the original on 29 November 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
  19. ^ a b "S-125/Pechora (SA-3 'Goa')". Janes.com. 2008-02-13. Retrieved 2008-08-04.
  20. ^ ""Печора-2М" стала практически неуязвима для ракет, самонаводящихся по излучению радаров — Сергей Птичкин — Российская газета". Rg.ru. 17 May 2007. Archived from the original on 2013-11-04. Retrieved 2013-08-26.
  21. ^ ARIC. "Пбп "Пвптпойфемшоще Уйуфенщ" - Пуопчобс Ртпйъчпдуфчеообс Урегйбмйъбгйс Ртедртйсфйк Ипмдйозб". Defensys.ru. Archived from the original on 2013-08-27. Retrieved 2013-08-26.
  22. ^ "-22". Pvo.guns.ru. Archived from the original on 27 November 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  23. ^ "Каста-2-2". Vniirt.ru. Archived from the original on 27 November 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  24. ^ "Таджикистан получил зенитно-ракетный комплекс "Печора-2М"". Arms-expo.ru. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  25. ^ "RusArmy.com - "-2"". Rusarmy.com. Archived from the original on 12 October 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  26. ^ "Unique Surface-To-Air Missile Baffles Foreign Military Diplomats In Egypt". Spacewar.com. Archived from the original on 2012-02-05. Retrieved 2013-08-26.
  27. ^ Dr C Kopp, Smaiaa, Smieee, Peng (14 June 2009). "Legacy Air Defence System Upgrades". Ausairpower.net: 1. Archived from the original on 2014-12-30. Retrieved 2013-08-26.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ "Ukrainian SAM upgrade locks on to launch customers". Jane's Defence Weekly. 2010-10-14. Archived from the original on September 11, 2012. Retrieved 2010-11-05.
  29. ^ "Thiếu tướng Lê Đăng Dũng - dấu ấn người đứng đầu". viettelfamily.com (in Vietnamese). Retrieved 2022-02-15.
  30. ^ cand.com.vn. "Đại tá Tào Đức Thắng chính thức nhận bàn giao chức danh Chủ tịch Viettel". Báo Công an Nhân dân điện tử (in Vietnamese). Retrieved 2022-02-15.
  31. ^ IISS 2024, p. 344.
  32. ^ IISS 2024, p. 472.
  33. ^ IISS 2024, p. 179.
  34. ^ IISS 2024, p. 181.
  35. ^ IISS 2024, p. 78.
  36. ^ IISS 2024, p. 429.
  37. ^ IISS 2024, p. 351.
  38. ^ IISS 2024, p. 491.
  39. ^ IISS 2024, p. 270.
  40. ^ IISS 2024, p. 187.
  41. ^ IISS 2024, p. 189.
  42. ^ IISS 2024, p. 290.
  43. ^ IISS 2024, p. 190.
  44. ^ IISS 2024, p. 295.
  45. ^ IISS 2024, p. 297.
  46. ^ IISS 2024, p. 284.
  47. ^ IISS 2024, p. 449.
  48. ^ IISS 2024, p. 126.
  49. ^ IISS 2024, p. 134.
  50. ^ IISS 2024, p. 387.
  51. ^ IISS 2024, p. 520.
  52. ^ IISS 2024, p. 207.
  53. ^ IISS 2024, p. 209.
  54. ^ "Ukraine Shows It Can Use Old Soviet Stuff to Great Effect Too". Kyiv Post. 2 July 2024. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
  55. ^ Mitkow, Mateusz (7 December 2022). "Upgraded Polish SA-3 Goa SAMs Defending Ukraine". defence24.com (in Polish). Retrieved 18 August 2024.
  56. ^ IISS 2024, p. 216.
  57. ^ IISS 2024, p. 456.
  58. ^ IISS 2024, p. 326.
  59. ^ "Hội thao, diễn tập chiến thuật phân đội hỏa lực tên lửa phòng không". People's Army Newspaper (in Vietnamese). Retrieved 2024-07-08.
  60. ^ IISS 2024, p. 528.
  61. ^ a b c d e f g h i Cullen & Foss 1992, p. 263.
  62. ^ a b c d e f g h i j O'Halloran & Foss 2002, p. 290.
  63. ^ "U.S. Assists Cambodia in Destruction of Missiles". Embassy of the United States Phnom Pehn · Cambodia. U.S. Department of State. 18 November 2005. Archived from the original on 19 October 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
  64. ^ IISS 1989, p. 48.
  65. ^ Mitzer, Stijn; Oliemans, Joost (8 April 2021). "Fighting The Tide: The Islamic State's Desperate Attempts to Combat Coalition Airpower". Oryx. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
  66. ^ Nachtrab, Thomas; Mitzer, Stijn (19 February 2022). "Goas In The Savanna: Mali's S-125 SAM Systems". Oryx. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
  67. ^ Cooper et al. 2011, p. 68
  68. ^ a b Cooper 2017, p. 43
  69. ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (2000). The Military Balance 2000. 2001. Oxford University Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-19-929003-1.
  70. ^ Cooper et al. 2011, p. 160
  71. ^ Mitzer, Stijn; Oliemans, Joost (21 November 2021). "New Imagery Suggests Continued Usage Of Surface-To-Air Missiles By Tigray Forces". Oryx Blog.
  72. ^ Cooper, Tom (2018). Hot Skies Over Yemen, Volume 2: Aerial Warfare Over the South Arabian Peninsula, 1994-2017. Warwick, UK: Helion & Company Publishing. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-911628-18-7.

Bibliography

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[edit]
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