Location via proxy:   [ UP ]  
[Report a bug]   [Manage cookies]                
Jump to content

Space station

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Space stations)
This article is about an outpost in space. For radio broadcasts sent from space, see space radio station. For stations named "Space", see Space (disambiguation).
International Space StationTiangong Space StationMirSkylabTiangong-2Salyut 1Salyut 2Salyut 4Salyut 6Salyut 7
The image above contains clickable links
The image above contains clickable links
Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes.

A space station (or orbital station) is a spacecraft which remains in orbit and hosts humans for extended periods of time. It therefore is an artificial satellite featuring habitation facilities. The purpose of maintaining a space station varies depending on the program. Most often space stations have been research stations, but they have also served military or commercial uses, such as hosting space tourists.

Space stations have been hosting the only continuous presence of humans in space. The first space station was Salyut 1 (1971), hosting the first crew, of the ill-fated Soyuz 11. Consecutively space stations have been operated since Skylab (1973) and occupied since 1987 with the Salyut successor Mir. Uninterrupted occupation has been sustained since the operational transition from the Mir to the International Space Station (ISS), with its first occupation in 2000.

Currently there are two fully operational space stations – the ISS and China's Tiangong Space Station (TSS), which have been occupied since October 2000 with Expedition 1 and since June 2022 with Shenzhou 14. The highest number of people at the same time on one space station has been 13, first achieved with the eleven day docking to the ISS of the 127th Space Shuttle mission in 2009. The record for most people on all space stations at the same time has been 17, first on May 30, 2023, with 11 people on the ISS and 6 on the TSS.[1]

Space stations are most often modular, featuring docking ports, through which they are built and maintained, allowing the joining or movement of modules and the docking of other spacecrafts for the exchange of people, supplies and tools. While space stations generally do not leave their orbit, they do feature thrusters for station keeping.

History

[edit]
See also: List of space stations

Early concepts

[edit]

The first mention of anything resembling a space station occurred in Edward Everett Hale's 1868 "The Brick Moon".[2] The first to give serious, scientifically grounded consideration to space stations were Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Hermann Oberth about two decades apart in the early 20th century.[3]

First description of a rotating space station, in Hermann Noordung's The Problem of Space Travel (1929).
(Legend: Achs-Körper: axle body. Aufzugschacht: elevator shaft. K: electric cable to an external observatory. Kondensatorrohre: condenser pipes. S: airlock. Treppenschacht: stairwell. Verdampfungsrohr: boiler pipe).

In 1929, Herman Potočnik's The Problem of Space Travel was published, the first to envision a "rotating wheel" space station to create artificial gravity.[2] Conceptualized during the Second World War, the "sun gun" was a theoretical orbital weapon orbiting Earth at a height of 8,200 kilometres (5,100 mi). No further research was ever conducted.[4] In 1951, Wernher von Braun published a concept for a rotating wheel space station in Collier's Weekly, referencing Potočnik's idea. However, development of a rotating station was never begun in the 20th century.[3]

First advances and precursors

[edit]
Further information: Space rendezvous § First docking

The first human flew to space and concluded the first orbit on April 12, 1961, with Vostok 1.

The Apollo program had in its early planning instead of a lunar landing a crewed lunar orbital flight and an orbital laboratory station in orbit of Earth, at times called Project Olympus, as two different possible program goals, until the Kennedy administration sped ahead and made the Apollo program focus on what was originally planned to come after it, the lunar landing. The Project Olympus space station, or orbiting laboratory of the Apollo program, was proposed as an in-space unfolded structure with the Apollo command and service module docking.[5] While never realized, the Apollo command and service module would perform docking maneuvers and eventually become a lunar orbiting module which was used for station-like purposes.

But before that the Gemini program paved the way and achieved the first space rendezvous (undocked) with Gemini 6 and Gemini 7 in 1965. Subsequently in 1966 Neil Armstrong performed on Gemini 8 the first ever space docking, while in 1967 Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188 were the first spacecrafts that docked automatically.

Gemini 8 docking with Agena vehicle

In January 1969, Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 performed the first docked, but not internal, crew transfer, and in March, Apollo 9 performed the first ever internal transfer of astronauts between two docked spaceships.

Salyut, Almaz and Skylab

[edit]
Main articles: Salyut, Almaz, and Skylab
Skylab (1973–1974), the first U.S. space station and second overall

In 1971, the Soviet Union developed and launched the world's first space station, Salyut 1.[6] The Almaz and Salyut series were eventually joined by Skylab, Mir, and Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2. The hardware developed during the initial Soviet efforts remains in use, with evolved variants comprising a considerable part of the ISS, orbiting today. Each crew member stays aboard the station for weeks or months but rarely more than a year.

Early stations were monolithic designs that were constructed and launched in one piece, generally containing all their supplies and experimental equipment. A crew would then be launched to join the station and perform research. After the supplies had been consumed, the station was abandoned.[6]

The first space station was Salyut 1, which was launched by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The early Soviet stations were all designated "Salyut", but among these, there were two distinct types: civilian and military. The military stations, Salyut 2, Salyut 3, and Salyut 5, were also known as Almaz stations.[7]

The civilian stations Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 were built with two docking ports, which allowed a second crew to visit, bringing a new spacecraft with them; the Soyuz ferry could spend 90 days in space, at which point it needed to be replaced by a fresh Soyuz spacecraft.[8] This allowed for a crew to man the station continually. The American Skylab (1973–1979) was also equipped with two docking ports, like second-generation stations, but the extra port was never used. The presence of a second port on the new stations allowed Progress supply vehicles to be docked to the station, meaning that fresh supplies could be brought to aid long-duration missions. This concept was expanded on Salyut 7, which "hard docked" with a TKS tug shortly before it was abandoned; this served as a proof of concept for the use of modular space stations. The later Salyuts may reasonably be seen as a transition between the two groups.[7]

Mir

[edit]
Main article: Mir
Mir station seen in 1998

Unlike previous stations, the Soviet space station Mir had a modular design; a core unit was launched, and additional modules, generally with a specific role, were later added. This method allows for greater flexibility in operation, as well as removing the need for a single immensely powerful launch vehicle. Modular stations are also designed from the outset to have their supplies provided by logistical support craft, which allows for a longer lifetime at the cost of requiring regular support launches.[9]

International Space Station

[edit]
Main article: International Space Station
View of the International Space Station in 2021

The ISS is divided into two main sections, the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) and the US Orbital Segment (USOS). The first module of the ISS, Zarya, was launched in 1998.[10]

The Russian Orbital Segment's "second-generation" modules were able to launch on Proton, fly to the correct orbit, and dock themselves without human intervention.[11] Connections are automatically made for power, data, gases, and propellants. The Russian autonomous approach allows the assembly of space stations prior to the launch of crew.

The Russian "second-generation" modules are able to be reconfigured to suit changing needs. As of 2009, RKK Energia was considering the removal and reuse of some modules of the ROS on the Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex after the end of mission is reached for the ISS.[12] However, in September 2017, the head of Roscosmos said that the technical feasibility of separating the station to form OPSEK had been studied, and there were now no plans to separate the Russian segment from the ISS.[13]

In contrast, the main US modules launched on the Space Shuttle and were attached to the ISS by crews during EVAs. Connections for electrical power, data, propulsion, and cooling fluids are also made at this time, resulting in an integrated block of modules that is not designed for disassembly and must be deorbited as one mass.[14]

The Axiom Orbital Segment is a planned commercial segment to be added to the ISS starting in the mid-2020s. Axiom Space gained NASA approval for the venture in January 2020. Up to three Axiom modules will attach to the International Space Station. The first module, Hab One, is expected to be launched at the end of 2026[15] and will be docked to the forward port of Harmony, requiring relocation of the PMA-2. Axiom Space plans to attach up to two additional modules to its first core module, and send private astronauts to inhabit the modules. The modules would later detach into the Axiom Station in a manner similar to Russia's proposed OPSEK.[16]

Tiangong program

[edit]
Main articles: Tiangong space station and Tiangong program
Rendering of the completed Tiangong Space Station in November 2022
Rendering of the completed Tiangong Space Station in November 2022

China's first space laboratory, Tiangong-1 was launched in September 2011.[17] The uncrewed Shenzhou 8 then successfully performed an automatic rendezvous and docking in November 2011. The crewed Shenzhou 9 then docked with Tiangong-1 in June 2012, followed by the crewed Shenzhou 10 in 2013.[citation needed]

According to the China Manned Space Engineering Office, Tiangong-1 reentered over the South Pacific Ocean, northwest of Tahiti, on 2 April 2018 at 00:15 UTC.[18][19]

A second space laboratory Tiangong-2 was launched in September 2016, while a plan for Tiangong-3 was merged with Tiangong-2.[20] The station made a controlled reentry on 19 July 2019 and burned up over the South Pacific Ocean.[21]

The Tiangong Space Station (Chinese: 天宫; pinyin: Tiāngōng; lit. 'Heavenly Palace'), the first module of which was launched on 29 April 2021,[22] is in low Earth orbit, 340 to 450 kilometres above the Earth at an orbital inclination of 42° to 43°. Its planned construction via 11 total launches across 2021–2022 was intended to extend the core module with two laboratory modules, capable of hosting up to six crew.[23][24]

Planned projects

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from List of space stations § Planned and proposed.[edit]

These space stations have been announced by their host entity and are currently in planning, development or production. The launch date listed here may change as more information becomes available.

Name Entity Program Crew size Launch date Planned Pressurized Volume Remarks
Lunar Gateway United States NASA
ESA
Canada CSA
Japan JAXA 		Artemis
4
 2027[25] ≥125 m3 (4,400 cu ft) Intended to serve as a science platform and as a staging area for the lunar landings of NASA's Artemis program and follow-on human mission to Mars.
Axiom Station United States Axiom Space
 International Space Station programme
TBD
 Late 2026[26] ~666.8 m3

(~23,548 cu ft)

Eventually will detach from the ISS in the early 2030s and form a private, free flying space station for commercial tourism and science activities.
Russian Orbital Service Station
 Russia Roscosmos Russia's next generation space station.
TBD
 2027[27] With Russia leaving the ISS programme sometime after 2024, Roscosmos announced this new space station in April 2021 as the replacement for that program.
Starlab United States NanoRacks
United States Voyager Space
European Union Airbus
CanadaMDA Space
JapanMitsubishi Corporation 		Private
4
 2028[28] ~450 m3

(~15892 cu ft)

"Commercial platform supporting a business designed to enable science, research, and manufacturing for customers around the world."

While originally Lockheed Martin was included in the project, as of 2024, it appears their primary role has been filled by Airbus, to provide the main habitat for the station.[29] As of 2024, they are no longer listed as a partner on Starlab's website.[30]

StarMax United States Gravitics Private
TBD
 2026[31] 400 m3

(14,126 cu ft)

"The StarMax module provides up to 400 cubic meters of usable habitable volume - nearly half the volume of the International Space Station in one module."
Orbital Reef United States Blue Origin
United States Sierra Space 		Private
10
 second half 2020s[32] 830 m3

(29,000 cu ft)

"Commercial station in LEO for research, industrial, international, and commercial customers."
Bharatiya Antariksha Station[33] India ISRO Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
3
 ~2035[33][34][35][36][37] ISRO chairman K. Sivan announced in 2019 that India will not join the International Space Station, but will instead build a space station of its own.[38] of 52 Tonne Mass [39] It is intended to be built 5–7 years after the conclusion of the Gaganyaan program.[40]
Lunar Orbital Station[41]
 Russia Roscosmos
TBD
 after 2030[42]
Haven-1 United States Vast Private
4
 2025[43] 80 m3[44] "Scheduled to be the world's first commercial space station, Haven-1 and subsequent human spaceflight missions will accelerate access to space exploration"[45]
Haven-2 United States Vast Private
12
 2028 1160 m3

[44]

A planned successor to Haven-1. Vast CEO Max Hoat expressed hope that the first module of Haven-2 will be launched in 2028 if the station will be approved during the second phase of NASA's Commercial LEO Destinations program.[46]
LIFE Pathfinder United States Sierra Space Private
TBD
 2026 285 m3[47] "Before offering LIFE for Orbital Reef, though, the company is proposing to launch a standalone “pathfinder” version of LIFE as soon as the end of 2026".[48]
Japanese Space Station Module (Mitsui) Japan JAXA|Mitsui & Co. TBA
TBD
 TBD Japan's spaceflight agency, JAXA, announced in July 2024 that has contracted Mitsui & Co. to develop a concept for a new space station module for eventual flight and docking to an American private space station as yet to be determined as of the initial announcement. [49][50][51]
Artificial Gravity Station United States Vast Private
40
 2035 1400 m3 [44]

Architecture

[edit]

Two types of space stations have been flown: monolithic and modular. Monolithic stations consist of a single vehicle and are launched by one rocket. Modular stations consist of two or more separate vehicles that are launched independently and docked on orbit. Modular stations are currently preferred due to lower costs and greater flexibility.[52][53]

A space station is a complex vehicle that must incorporate many interrelated subsystems, including structure, electrical power, thermal control, attitude determination and control, orbital navigation and propulsion, automation and robotics, computing and communications, environmental and life support, crew facilities, and crew and cargo transportation. Stations must serve a useful role, which drives the capabilities required.[citation needed]

Orbit and purpose

[edit]

Materials

[edit]
Main article: Manufacturing of the International Space Station
See also: Bigelow Expandable Activity Module

Space stations are made from durable materials that have to weather space radiation, internal pressure, micrometeoroids, thermal effects of the sun and cold temperatures for long periods of time. They are typically made from stainless steel, titanium and high-quality aluminum alloys, with layers of insulation such as Kevlar as a ballistics shield protection.[54]

The International Space Station (ISS) has a single inflatable module, the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module, which was installed in April 2016 after being delivered to the ISS on the SpaceX CRS-8 resupply mission.[55][56] This module, based on NASA research in the 1990s, weighs 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb) and was transported while compressed before being attached to the ISS by the space station arm and inflated to provide a 16 cubic metres (21 cu yd) volume. Whilst it was initially designed for a 2 year lifetime it was still attached and being used for storage in August 2022.[57][58]

Construction

[edit]

Habitability

[edit]
Main article: Effect of spaceflight on the human body

The space station environment presents a variety of challenges to human habitability, including short-term problems such as the limited supplies of air, water, and food and the need to manage waste heat, and long-term ones such as weightlessness and relatively high levels of ionizing radiation. These conditions can create long-term health problems for space-station inhabitants, including muscle atrophy, bone deterioration, balance disorders, eyesight disorders, and elevated risk of cancer.[59]

Future space habitats may attempt to address these issues, and could be designed for occupation beyond the weeks or months that current missions typically last. Possible solutions include the creation of artificial gravity by a rotating structure, the inclusion of radiation shielding, and the development of on-site agricultural ecosystems. Some designs might even accommodate large numbers of people, becoming essentially "cities in space" where people would reside semi-permanently.[60]

Molds that develop aboard space stations can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. Despite an expanding array of molecular approaches for detecting microorganisms, rapid and robust means of assessing the differential viability of the microbial cells, as a function of phylogenetic lineage, remain elusive.[61]

Power

[edit]
Main article: Solar panels on spacecraft
See also: Electrical system of the International Space Station and Roll Out Solar Array

Like uncrewed spacecraft close to the Sun, space stations in the inner Solar System generally rely on solar panels to obtain power.[62]

Life support

[edit]
Main articles: Environmental Control and Life Support System and Vika oxygen generator

Space station air and water is brought up in spacecraft from Earth before being recycled. Supplemental oxygen can be supplied by a solid fuel oxygen generator.[63]

Communications

[edit]
Main articles: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System, Lira (ISS), and Amateur Radio on the International Space Station
See also: Interplanetary Internet, InterPlaNet, and Optical Payload for Lasercomm Science

Military

[edit]

The last military-use space station was the Soviet Salyut 5, which was launched under the Almaz program and orbited between 1976 and 1977.[64][65][66]

Occupation

[edit]

Space stations have harboured so far the only long-duration direct human presence in space. After the first station, Salyut 1 (1971), and its tragic Soyuz 11 crew, space stations have been operated consecutively since Skylab (1973–1974), having allowed a progression of long-duration direct human presence in space. Long-duration resident crews have been joined by visiting crews since 1977 (Salyut 6), and stations have been occupied by consecutive crews since 1987 with the Salyut successor Mir. Uninterrupted occupation of stations has been achieved since the operational transition from the Mir to the ISS, with its first occupation in 2000. The ISS has hosted the highest number of people in orbit at the same time, reaching 13 for the first time during the eleven day docking of STS-127 in 2009.[67]

The duration record for a single spaceflight is 437.75 days, set by Valeri Polyakov aboard Mir from 1994 to 1995.[68] As of 2021, four cosmonauts have completed single missions of over a year, all aboard Mir.

Operations

[edit]

Resupply and crew vehicles

[edit]
Main articles: List of crewed spacecraft and Comparison of space station cargo vehicles
See also: Commercial Resupply Services

Many spacecraft are used to dock with the space stations. Soyuz flight T-15 in March to July 1986 was the first and as of 2016, only spacecraft to visit two different space stations, Mir and Salyut 7.[69]

International Space Station

[edit]
Main articles: List of human spaceflights to the International Space Station and Uncrewed spaceflights to the International Space Station

The International Space Station has been supported by many different spacecraft.

Tiangong space station

[edit]
Main article: Tiangong space station

The Tiangong space station is supported by the following spacecraft:

Tiangong program

[edit]
Main article: Tiangong program

The Tiangong program relied on the following spacecraft.

Mir

[edit]
Main articles: List of human spaceflights to Mir and List of uncrewed spaceflights to Mir

The Mir space station was in orbit from 1986 to 2001 and was supported and visited by the following spacecraft:

Skylab

[edit]
Main article: Skylab

Salyut programme

[edit]
Main article: Salyut programme

Docking and berthing

[edit]
Main article: Docking and berthing of spacecraft
See also: International Docking System Standard and Chinese Docking Mechanism

Maintenance

[edit]

Research

[edit]
Main article: Scientific research on the International Space Station

Research conducted on the Mir included the first long term space based ESA research project EUROMIR 95 which lasted 179 days and included 35 scientific experiments.[108]

During the first 20 years of operation of the International Space Station, there were around 3,000 scientific experiments in the areas of biology and biotech, technology development, educational activities, human research, physical science, and Earth and space science.[109][110]

Materials research

[edit]

Space stations provide a useful platform to test the performance, stability, and survivability of materials in space. This research follows on from previous experiments such as the Long Duration Exposure Facility, a free flying experimental platform which flew from April 1984 until January 1990.[111][112]

Human research

[edit]
Main articles: Effect of spaceflight on the human body and Bioastronautics
See also: ISS year-long mission

Botany

[edit]
Main article: Astrobotany

Space tourism

[edit]
Main article: Orbital space tourism

On the International Space Station, guests sometimes pay $50 million to spend the week living as an astronaut. Later, space tourism is slated to expand once launch costs are lowered sufficiently. By the end of the 2020s, space hotels may become relatively common.[citation needed]

Finance

[edit]

As it currently costs on average $10,000 to $25,000 per kilogram to launch anything into orbit, space stations remain the exclusive province of government space agencies, which are primarily funded by taxation. In the case of the International Space Station, space tourism makes up a small portion of money to run it.

Legacy

[edit]

Technology spinoffs

[edit]
See also: NASA spinoff technologies

International cooperation and economy

[edit]

Cultural impact

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Space stations and habitats in fiction.[edit]
"The Brick Moon" – an 1869 serial by Edward Everett Hale – was the first fictional space station or habitat.
The concepts of space stations and space habitats feature in science fiction. The difference between the two is that habitats are larger and more complex structures intended as permanent homes for substantial populations (though generation ships also fit this description, they are usually not considered space habitats as they are heading for a destination[117]), but the line between the two is fuzzy with significant overlap and the term space station is sometimes used for both concepts.[118][119] The first such artificial satellite in fiction was Edward Everett Hale's "The Brick Moon" in 1869,[118][120] a sphere of bricks 61 meters across accidentally launched into orbit around the Earth with people still onboard.[117][121]

Space settlement

[edit]
Main article: Space settlement
See also: Moonbase and Mars habitat

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Clark, Stephen. "Chinese astronaut launch breaks record for most people in orbit – Spaceflight Now". Retrieved 1 June 2023.
  2. ^ a b Mann, Adam (January 25, 2012). "Strange Forgotten Space Station Concepts That Never Flew". Wired. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
  3. ^ a b "The First Space Station". Boys' Life. September 1989. p. 20.
  4. ^ "Science: Sun Gun". Time. July 9, 1945. Archived from the original on May 21, 2013. Retrieved September 13, 2011.
  5. ^ "Project Olympus (1962)". WIRED. 2013-09-02. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  6. ^ a b Ivanovich, Grujica S. (2008). Salyut – The First Space Station: Triumph and Tragedy. Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-73973-1. OCLC 304494949.
  7. ^ a b Chladek, Jay (2017). Outposts on the Frontier: A Fifty-Year History of Space Stations. Clayton C. Anderson. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2292-2. OCLC 990337324.
  8. ^ Portree, D. S. F. (1995). "Mir Hardware Heritage" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
  9. ^ Hall, R., ed. (2000). The History of Mir 1986–2000. British Interplanetary Society. ISBN 978-0-9506597-4-9.
  10. ^ "History and Timeline of the ISS". Center for the Advancement of Science in Space. Archived from the original on 25 February 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
  11. ^ "Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering" (PDF). Usu.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-13.[permanent dead link‍]
  12. ^ Zak, Anatoly (22 May 2009). "Russia 'to save its ISS modules'". BBC News. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
  13. ^ Foust, Jeff (25 September 2017). "International partners in no rush regarding future of ISS". SpaceNews. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
  14. ^ Kelly, Thomas; et al. (2000). Engineering Challenges to the Long-Term Operation of the International Space Station. National Academies Press. pp. 28–30. ISBN 978-0-309-06938-0.
  15. ^ Foust, Jeff (13 December 2023). "SpaceX yet to select launch pad for next Axiom Space private astronaut mission". SpaceNews. Retrieved 13 December 2023. Ondler said in the briefing that the first of those modules is now scheduled to launch to the ISS at the end of 2026, about a year later than the company previously announced.
  16. ^ "NASA selects Axiom Space to build commercial space station module". SpaceNews. 2020-01-28. Retrieved 2020-09-18.
  17. ^ Barbosa, Rui (29 September 2011). "China launches TianGong-1 to mark next human space flight milestone". NASASpaceflight.com.
  18. ^ Staff (1 April 2018). "Tiangong-1: Defunct China space lab comes down over South Pacific". BBC News. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
  19. ^ Chang, Kenneth (1 April 2018). "China's Tiangong-1 Space Station Has Fallen Back to Earth Over the Pacific". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
  20. ^ Dickinson, David (10 November 2017). "China's Tiangong 1 Space Station to Burn Up". Sky & Telescope. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
  21. ^ Liptak, Andrew (20 July 2019). "China has deorbited its experimental space station". The Verge. Retrieved 21 July 2019.
  22. ^ "China launches first module of new space station". BBC News. 29 April 2021.
  23. ^ Wall, Mike (7 January 2021). "China plans to launch core module of space station this year". Space.com. Retrieved 2021-05-04.
  24. ^ Clark, Stephen. "China to begin construction of space station this year – Spaceflight Now". Retrieved 2021-05-04.
  25. ^ "NASA's Gateway Program". NASA. 12 June 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
  26. ^ Foust, Jeff (13 December 2023). "SpaceX yet to select launch pad for next Axiom Space private astronaut mission". SpaceNews. Retrieved 13 December 2023. Ondler said in the briefing that the first of those modules is now scheduled to launch to the ISS at the end of 2026, about a year later than the company previously announced.
  27. ^ "Russia to set up national orbital outpost in 2027 — Roscosmos". TASS. Retrieved 2023-05-30.
  28. ^ Jewett, Rachel (2 August 2023). "Voyager Space and Airbus to Form Joint Venture for Starlab Commercial Space Station". Via Satellite. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
  29. ^ "Airbus et Voyager vont créer une coentreprise pour la construction d'une station spatiale". Boursorama (in French). 2023-08-02. Retrieved 2024-07-03.
  30. ^ "Starlab - A New-Era Space Destination". Starlab - A New-Era Space Destination. Retrieved 2024-07-03.
  31. ^ "Gravitics". www.gravitics.com. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  32. ^ "Blue Origin andn Sierra Space Developing Commercial Space Station" (PDF). Retrieved November 6, 2022.
  33. ^ a b "Prime Minister reviews readiness of Gaganyaan Mission". Press Information Bureau (Press release). Prime Minister's Office. 17 October 2023. Archived from the original on 5 August 2024.
  34. ^ "India plans to launch space station by 2030". Engadget. June 16, 2019. Retrieved June 18, 2019.
  35. ^ "ISRO Looks Beyond Manned Mission; Gaganyaan Aims to Include Women".
  36. ^ "India eying an indigenous station in space". The Hindu Business Line. June 13, 2019. Retrieved June 18, 2019.
  37. ^ "ISRO Chairman announces details of Gaganyaan, Chandrayaan-2 and Missions to Sun& Venus India to have its own space station, says Dr K Sivan". Press Information Bureau. 13 June 2019. Retrieved 18 June 2019.
  38. ^ "India planning to have own space station: ISRO chief". The Economic Times.
  39. ^ "India's Space Exploration Roadmap" (PDF). UNOOSA.
  40. ^ Singh, Surendra (13 June 2019). "India's own space station to come up in 5–7 years: Isro chief". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
  41. ^ Ahatoly Zak. "Lunar Orbital Station, LOS". Russian Space Web. Retrieved 11 February 2012.
  42. ^ Xinhua (28 April 2012). "Russia unveils space plan beyond 2030". english.cntv.cn. China Central Television. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
  43. ^ Etherington, Darrell (10 May 2023). "Vast and SpaceX aim to put the first commercial space station in orbit in 2025". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on 1 October 2023. Retrieved 10 May 2023.
  44. ^ a b c "Roadmap — VAST". www.vastspace.com. Retrieved 2024-11-13.
  45. ^ "VAST Announces the Haven-1 and VAST-1 Missions" (Press release). Long Beach, California: Vast Space LLC. Archived from the original on 1 August 2024. Retrieved 10 May 2023.
  46. ^ Foust, Jeff (13 October 2024). "Vast releases design of Haven-2 commercial space station". SpaceNews. Retrieved 15 October 2024.
  47. ^ "LIFE® | Inflatable Space Station". www.sierraspace.com. Retrieved 2024-11-13.
  48. ^ Foust, Jeff (28 June 2023). "Sierra Space describes long-term plans for Dream Chaser and inflatable modules". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 23 August 2024. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
  49. ^ Foust, Jeff (9 July 2024). "Japanese venture seeks to develop commercial space station module". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 13 July 2024.
  50. ^ "Space Compass initiates feasibility study to commercialize telecom and on-orbit data processing for post-ISS Japanese Module" (PDF) (Press release). Space Compass Corporation. 26 September 2023. Tokyo, Japan. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 August 2024.
  51. ^ "Mitsui selected to conduct a concept study of Japanese module" (Press release). Mitsui. 14 September 2023. Archived from the original on 27 May 2024.
  52. ^ As, Ganesh (2020-03-13). "Mir, the first modular space station". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2022-08-27.
  53. ^ Williams, Matt; Today, Universe. "Looking back at the Mir space station". phys.org. Retrieved 2022-08-27.
  54. ^ "State space corporation ROSCOSMOS |". Archived from the original on 2021-06-27. Retrieved 2020-06-26.
  55. ^ Gebhardt, Chris (2016-05-11). "CRS-8 Dragon completes ISS mission, splashes down in Pacific". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved 2022-08-28.
  56. ^ Bergin, Chris (2016-04-16). "BEAM installed on ISS following CRS-8 Dragon handover". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved 2022-08-28.
  57. ^ Davis, Jason (2016-04-05). "All about BEAM, the space station's new inflatable module". www.planetary.org. The Planetary Society. Retrieved 2022-08-28.
  58. ^ Foust, Jeff (2022-01-21). "Bigelow Aerospace transfers BEAM space station module to NASA". SpaceNews. Retrieved 2022-08-28.
  59. ^ Chang, Kenneth (27 January 2014). "Beings Not Made for Space". New York Times. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  60. ^ "Space Settlements: A Design Study". NASA. 1975. Archived from the original on 31 May 2010. Retrieved 10 February 2018.
  61. ^ Bell, Trudy E. (2007). "Preventing "Sick" Spaceships". Archived from the original on 2017-05-14. Retrieved 2017-07-12.
  62. ^ "Basics of Space Flight Section II. Space Flight Projects". www2.jpl.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2022-08-23.
  63. ^ Brown, Michael J. I. (5 December 2017). "Curious Kids: Where does the oxygen come from in the International Space Station, and why don't they run out of air?". The Conversation. Retrieved 2022-08-27.
  64. ^ Russian Space Stations (wikisource).
  65. ^ "Are there military space stations out there?". HowStuffWorks. 2008-06-23. Retrieved 2022-08-27.
  66. ^ Hitchens, Theresa (2019-07-02). "Pentagon Eyes Military Space Station". Breaking Defense. Retrieved 2022-08-27.
  67. ^ "Mission STS-127". Canadian Space Agency. Aug 13, 2008. Retrieved Oct 20, 2021.
  68. ^ Madrigal, Alexis. "March 22, 1995: Longest Human Space Adventure Ends". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2022-08-27.
  69. ^ a b Zak, Anatoly. "The Strange Trip of Soyuz T-15". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  70. ^ "NASA Adds Sierra Nevada's Dream Chaser To ISS Supply Vehicles". TechCrunch. 15 January 2016. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  71. ^ "First Dream Chaser vehicle takes shape". SpaceNews. 2022-04-29. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  72. ^ Clark, Stephen. "Last in current line of Japan's HTV cargo ships departs space station – Spaceflight Now". Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  73. ^ Noumi, Ai; Ujiie, Ryo; Ueda, Satoshi; Someya, Kazunori; Ishihama, Naoki; Kondoh, Yoshinori (2018-01-08). "Verification of HTV-X resilient design by simulation environment with model-based technology". 2018 AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies Conference. AIAA SciTech Forum. Kissimmee, Florida: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.2018-1926. ISBN 978-1-62410-528-9.
  74. ^ "Russia's position in space race above India but below US and China". realnoevremya.com. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  75. ^ "Orel, the russian capsule that will replace the Soyuz". Enkey Magazine. 2020-07-16. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  76. ^ "Orbital's Antares launches Cygnus on debut mission to ISS". NASASpaceFlight.com. 2013-09-18. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  77. ^ "Cygnus sets date for next ISS mission – Castor XL ready for debut". NASASpaceFlight.com. 2014-10-08. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  78. ^ "Progress cargo ship". www.russianspaceweb.com. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  79. ^ "Progress MS – Spacecraft & Satellites". Archived from the original on 2023-06-01. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  80. ^ "Spaceflight mission report: Soyuz TM-32". www.spacefacts.de. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  81. ^ Bergin, Chris (2016-10-30). "Soyuz MS-01 trio return to Earth". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  82. ^ "SpaceX's debut Cargo Dragon 2 docks to Station". NASASpaceFlight.com. 2020-12-06. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  83. ^ Gebhardt, Chris (2021-01-11). "CRS-21 Dragon completes mission with splashdown off Tampa". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  84. ^ Jenniskens, Peter; published, Jason Hatton (2008-09-25). "The Spectacular Breakup of ATV: One Final Experiment". Space.com. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  85. ^ "Ariane 5 Launches Final ATV Mission to Station". SpaceNews. 2014-07-30. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  86. ^ Malik, Tariq (2009-09-10). "Japan Launches Space Cargo Ship on Maiden Flight". Space.com. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  87. ^ Graham, William (2020-05-25). "HTV-9 arrives at ISS on final mission". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  88. ^ "Space History Photo: Madeleine Albright & Daniel Goldin at STS-88 Launch". Space.com. 2012-05-22. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  89. ^ Howell, Elizabeth (2021-07-09). "The last voyage of NASA's space shuttle: Looking back at Atlantis' final mission 10 years later". Space.com. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  90. ^ Moskowitz, Clara (2012-05-22). "SpaceX Launches Private Capsule on Historic Trip to Space Station". Space.com. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  91. ^ Clark, Stephen. "With successful splashdown, SpaceX retires first version of Dragon spacecraft – Spaceflight Now". Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  92. ^ "China space station: Shenzhou-12 delivers first crew to Tianhe module". BBC News. 2021-06-17. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  93. ^ Davenport, Justin (2021-06-16). "Shenzhou-12 and three crew members successfully launch to new Chinese space station". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  94. ^ Wall, Mike (2021-05-29). "China launches new cargo ship to Tianhe space station module". Space.com. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  95. ^ Graham, William (2021-05-29). "China launches Tianzhou 2, first cargo mission to new space station". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  96. ^ "China's unmanned Shenzhou 8 capsule returns to Earth". BBC News. 2011-11-17. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  97. ^ "China launches Shenzhou-11 crewed spacecraft". SpaceNews. 2016-10-17. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  98. ^ "NASA – NSSDCA – Spacecraft – Details". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  99. ^ "NASA – NSSDCA – Spacecraft – Details". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  100. ^ "Spaceflight Now | Mir | Space tug poised for launch to Russia's Mir station". spaceflightnow.com. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  101. ^ "Spaceflight Now | Mir | Deorbiting space tug arrives at Russia's Mir station". spaceflightnow.com. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  102. ^ a b Zak, Anatoly (2016-02-19). "Why Mir Mattered More Than You Think". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  103. ^ "When Atlantis Met MIR 25 Years Since STS-71". Coca-Cola Space Science Center. 16 June 2020. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  104. ^ "STS-91 Space Radiation Environment Measurement Program -TOP-". iss.jaxa.jp. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  105. ^ Compton, W. D.; Benson, C. D. (January 1983). "SP-4208 LIVING AND WORKING IN SPACE: A HISTORY OF SKYLAB – Chapter 15". history.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  106. ^ Compton, W. D.; Benson, C. D. (January 1983). "SP-4208 LIVING AND WORKING IN SPACE: A HISTORY OF SKYLAB – Chapter 17". history.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  107. ^ "The USSR launches first space station crew". www.russianspaceweb.com. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  108. ^ Reiter, T. (December 1996). "Utilisation of the MIR Space Station". In Guyenne, T. D. (ed.). Space Station Utilisation, Proceedings of the Symposium held 30 September – 2 October, 1996 in Darmstadt, Germany. Vol. 385. European Space Agency. Noordwijk, The Netherlands: European Space Agency Publications Division. pp. 19–27. Bibcode:1996ESASP.385.....G. ISBN 92-9092-223-0. OCLC 38174384. Retrieved 2022-08-28.
  109. ^ Witze, Alexandra (2020-11-03). "Astronauts have conducted nearly 3,000 science experiments aboard the ISS". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-03085-8. PMID 33149317. S2CID 226258372.
  110. ^ Guzman, Ana (2020-10-26). "20 Breakthroughs from 20 Years of Science aboard the ISS". NASA. Retrieved 2022-08-28.
  111. ^ Kinard, W.; O'Neal, R.; Wilson, B.; Jones, J.; Levine, A.; Calloway, R. (October 1994). "Overview of the space environmental effects observed on the retrieved long duration exposure facility (LDEF)". Advances in Space Research. 14 (10): 7–16. Bibcode:1994AdSpR..14j...7K. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(94)90444-8. PMID 11540010.
  112. ^ Zolensky, Michael (May 2021). "The Long Duration Exposure Facility—A forgotten bridge between Apollo and Stardust". Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 56 (5): 900–910. Bibcode:2021M&PS...56..900Z. doi:10.1111/maps.13656. ISSN 1086-9379. S2CID 235890776.
  113. ^ Harvey, Gale A; Humes, Donald H; Kinard, William H (March 2000). "Shuttle and MIR Special Environmental Effects and Hardware Cleanliness". High Performance Polymers. 12 (1): 65–82. doi:10.1088/0954-0083/12/1/306. ISSN 0954-0083. S2CID 137731119.
  114. ^ Nicogossian, Arnauld E.; Roy, Stephanie (November 1998). Wilson, A. (ed.). Transitioning from Spacelab to the International Space Station. 2nd European Symposium on Utilisation of the International Space Station. Vol. 433. Noordwijk, Netherlands: ESA Publications Division, ESTEC (published 1999). pp. 653–658. Bibcode:1999ESASP.433..653N. ISBN 92-9092-732-1. OCLC 41941169. ESA SP-433. Archived from the original on 14 June 2023. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  115. ^ de Groh, Kim K.; Banks, Bruce A.; Dever, Joyce A.; Jaworske, Donald A.; Miller, Sharon K. R.; Sechkar, Edward A.; Panko, Scott R. (March 2008). International Space Station Experiments (Misse 1–7) (PDF). International Symposium on SM/MPAC and SEED Experiments. Tsukuba, Japan: NASA (published August 2009). hdl:2060/20090005995. S2CID 54880762. TM-2008-215482. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 June 2024.
  116. ^ Center, NASA's Marshall Space Flight (15 September 2021). "Marshall contributes to key Space Station experiment". The Redstone Rocket. Retrieved 2022-08-28.
  117. ^ a b McKinney, Richard L. (2005). "Space Habitats". In Westfahl, Gary (ed.). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 736–738. ISBN 978-0-313-32952-4.
  118. ^ a b Nicholls, Peter; Langford, David (2022). "Space Stations". In Clute, John; Langford, David; Sleight, Graham (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (4th ed.). Retrieved 2023-12-29.
  119. ^ Nicholls, Peter; Langford, David (2021). "Space Habitats". In Clute, John; Langford, David; Sleight, Graham (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (4th ed.). Retrieved 2021-08-06.
  120. ^ Stableford, Brian (2006). "Artificial satellite". Science Fact and Science Fiction: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 35–37. ISBN 978-0-415-97460-8.
  121. ^ Fries, Sylvia Doughty; Ordway, Frederick I. III (1987-06-01). "The Space Station From Concept to Evolving Reality". Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. 12 (2): 143–159. doi:10.1179/isr.1987.12.2.143. ISSN 0308-0188.

Bibliography

[edit]
[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Space_station&oldid=1252626071"