User:Byhav/Technorationalism

This is our EME 6626 rough draft for technorationalism. We can modify this page here before we officially post it. Bold text==Definition== Technorationalism is the belief that technology is the rational and scientific means to solve society’s problems. It is directly related to the term "technological rationality," originally coined by Herbert Marcuse in 1941, which notes that once "rational" employments of technology occur within society, they alter what is seen as "rational." Technorationalism re-structures what is considered to be rational in order to portray technology as the solution to all problems. AMD94 Technorationalism is the belief that rational thinking and expert analysis can solve any problem. The emotional viewpoint is not considered nor even understood.(Kristine King)

Herbert Marcuse, credited with coining technological rationality, was quick to warn against the dangers of the individuals' consumption of technology 'as a social apparatus' in his work, Some Social Implications of Modern Technology. Marcuse cautions that man is inseparably involved with technology, yet without care, can lead to 'the emergence of modern masses and a loss of individuality and thus, humanity. Marcuse does offer benefits of technology; he states that technology allows for a 'democratization of functions' (Marcuse, 152). Technology allows the 'power' of knowledge and education can be made available to everyone. This democratization of functions, Marcuse argued, could "facilitate complete human development in all branches of work and administration" and may allow for a shift from a production-oriented society to "the arena of free human realization". "The less individuality is required to assert itself in standardized social performances, the more it could retreat to a free "natural" ground" (Marcuse, 160). GTS4

In a review of Marcuse's 1964 One-Dimensional Man, Fromm et al. summarize the major concepts of the book, one of them being technological rationality. "Technological rationality, which impoverishes all aspects of contemporary life, has developed the material bases of human freedom, but continues to serve the interests of suppression. There is a logic of domination in technological progress under present conditions: not quantitative accumulation, but a qualitative “leap” is necessary to transform this apparatus of destruction into an apparatus of life" (1964, para. 3). MEP29

Possibly unaware of the precise nature of the problem, the technorationalist is determined to use technology to find solutions to the problem.  The technorationalist believes technology can be utilized in most circumstances. (TLA27)

Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also encompass broader themes, including systems, processes, and methods of an organization. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food, and the invention of the wheel helped humans in traveling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.

Rationalism is the philosophical view that regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge. It is a theory that reason is in itself a source of knowledge superior to and independent of sense perceptions.

<In Education> Technorationalism in instructional technology: in the realm of education, technorationalism is a means by which one only considers a technology as the solution to a problem in the classroom. Maintaining a balance of technology and instruction is a goal of every education professional.

In a paper written by a student at UWF, technorationalism is described as the belief that technology would solve all the ills of the world [4]. Additionally, Umbach (1998) asserted that developing a basic level of computer competency by during their k-12 years, students may develop “more advanced skills during their college years rather than needing an introduction at that time” (p.12). Umbach, K. W. (1998). Learning-related outcomes of computer technology in k-12 education.California Research Bureau. California State Library. Retrieved from http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/98/10/98010.pdf - 970358685.

Technorationalism is the belief that technology can provide a more practical approach to learning. It is the belief that technology can solve all perceived issues as they relate to learning. Following Rogers' (1995) Individual Innovativeness theory, the technorationalist is often an innovative individual who adopts innovations and technologies earlier than the majority of a society or organization. [NMT11]

In the ‘techno-rational’ ethos of Western Culture where solving the problem is paramount and ‘time is money,’ ‘objective’ reason and analysis and attention to the ‘bottom line’ are considered superior to feelings and emotions. The intellectual source of this discrimination is traceable to the 17th Century philosopher and mathematician, Rene’ Descartes, who articulated the presumed distinction with the phrase, “cogito ergo sum,’ “I think, therefore I am,” clearly enunciating the preference and belief in the superiority of reasoned analysis over subjective sensation in the pursuit of knowledge. 970355876

In early twentieth-century architectural discourse, "the parallels between the two dominant strains of modernism, intellectualism and techno-rationalism, purported the need for a formal, rule-bound, abstract systems of logic and analysis that bore the stamp of the Cartesian intellectualism. Both began employing a logic-driven approach based on science, differing only on what kind of data was offered to human cognition. Both insisted that architecture reflect and serve the conditions of modern life, leading toward the spread of urbanization" (Stafford, p.275) --970356817

In "Post Perspectives: The Critical Roots of Complexity- Informed Discourses in Education" Wells makes references to the view of Davis (2004) on technorationalism. Davis suggests that the spread of urbanization, the rise of a new working class, and the centralization of economic capital and educational resources led to the modern institution of formalized schooling. He continues that “the purpose of this new “modern” institution was to educate the individual, through the use of symbolic technologies, to become a productive member of industry and society” (Wells, p.195). The new industrial practices in the early twentieth century led to the beginnings of the bureaucratization of education into a mechanistic assembly line that saw the rise of “technorationalism and scientism” (Wells, p.195) as the predominant paradigmatic influences in society and education. (http://www.complexityandeducation.ualberta.ca/conferences/2004/Documents/CSER2_Wells.pdf)

Technorationalism has resulted in the coining of the new term 'shelfware' which refers to unused software purchased by companies. This new phenomenon of overbuying software that is not used has resulted in IT department budgeting issues. The rising influx of wasted software and technology purchases are forcing companies to rethink their current purchasing practices and to devices other ways of using technologies that were previously purchased by unsuccessfully implemented. 970357045 (http://www.cfo.com/printable/article.cfm/3006814)

Technonationalism takes other forms too, for example it claims that each country is best fitted for the technological age. The creation of new national identities fitted for a technological age was happening around the world. There was, for example, hardly a nation that did not have intellectuals who thought his or her nation was best fitted for the ‘air age.’ (JDF40)

Technorationalism is the theory that all problems can be rationally solve through technology. The question remains, what is considered rational? Rational has different meanings to different individuals. Technology is an instrument like any other tool that can fix a variety of things, but for a problem to be fixed, the intellect behind the technology is the true problem solver to all things considered rational. 970014773

Richard Smith (2002) refers to technorationalism as performance and efficiency in educational systems, "which is deified, rather than critiqued," while ignoring the purpose behind education. (http://trumpeter.athabascau.ca/index.php/trumpet/article/view/125/138) --- J. Malone

Lay persons, in general, have an idea that their decisions should be based on rationality and not on emotions, but the process of rationality, according to Hsee, Yang, Xingshan, and Hanwei (2015) differs from person to person in real world applications. A reasonable question related to Technorationalism, therefore, could be whether the choice to use a given technology is actually based on rationalism or human emotions. Hsee, et al. (2015) write about the varying mix of rationality and feelings that influence individuals' behavior choices, and that emotions play more of a role in some people's decisions than they are aware. People believe they are making a rational decision but are actually making one based more on their emotions. They suggest the use of a scale which they developed, to measure a person's lay rationalism to predict future behavior choices. In another example where organizations, rather than individuals, are faced with decisions impacting organizational change, Ormerod (2016) advocates for a process he calls Critical Rationalism for Practice (CRforP) that he believes would help decrease decision-making based on emotions. Is the technology truly beneficial for a given purpose or goal? What are the anticipated outcomes and potential implications of implementation? According to Hsee, et al.(2015) it is beneficial to know how much emotions versus rationality play in a person's decision-making process, and according to Ormerod (2016)there is a process that can reduce emotional decision-making. Technorationalism may not always be based on rationality. AMD90

Examples

Technorationalism in Land-Use Planning

Beginning in 1982, land use planning resulted in poorly implemented plans in Indonesia and Malinau as a result of technorationalism through the creation of a national land-use plan using databases and digitized maps. These maps were generated to divide the land into zones such as conservation forest, production forest, and forest for conversion to agriculture. However, the maps relied on "rational" views with little regard for direct experience, leading to inaccurate maps and zones that were not appropriate to actual conditions on the ground. In 1987-1990, the creation of databases of development and reforestation areas was implemented as a technorational solution. However, inaccuracies remain, because the district created a conventional land-use plan based upon technorationalism with little regard to land capabilities and existing land-use practices of the local people. DLJ15

Technorationalism in Art and Design

Orr (2005)contrasts the aims of critical art assessment with the techno-rationalist focus of traditional assessment research in education over the past decade. The techno-rationalist approach has a heavy focus on "validity, objectivity, process, and procedures." Orr contrasts this focus with that of art and design, highlighting contemporary art's delight in the novelty and the unexpected. In contrast to the techno-rationalist mindset, art assessment values "creativity, originallity, inventiveness, inqunity, freshness, and vision."

Orr, S. (2007). Assessment practices in art and design. Art, Design, and Communication in Higher Education, 5 (2), 79 - 151. [[Image:Cogitoergosum.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A cartoon centipede reads books and types on a laptop.|Cartoons often reflect real problems perceived in the relationship between human and computer Huhtamo.]

Technorationalism is not without its critics. Erkii Huhtamo notes that as a result of the dominance of the technorationalist approach to culture "history evanesces as technology marches on." For a technorationlist the past is only useful for constructing new hardware and software,raising concerns about their lack of historical consciousness of the radically new relationship between human and machine. Futhermore, Dissanayake (1995) states, “despite the many creature comfort and liberties that a scientific world view has made possible in modern society, the individualism, secularism, and technorationalist also fostered by science conspicuously fail to provide certain fundamental verities and satisfactions that were inherent in traditional, prescientific societies” (pg. 2). --DeniseCase (talk) 16:46, 18 October 2011 (UTC)970062169 Some visual art teachers are among those who criticize technology, arguing that the kinesthetic action of painting is not one that can be duplicated with a computer mouse, but rather disjoints one's hand from his or her mind. Others propose that examining art from an electronic gallery can never compare from seeing an actual piece of artwork in person.--970277505

In an article out of Australia, author Lindy A Orthia defined technorationalism as being "another ideological position". http://thesis.anu.edu.au/public/adt-ANU20100810.152632/index.html

In a symposium proposal for the SRHE conference 2009, by author Louise Morley, University of Sussex, the term, "techno-rationalism" is used to describe hyper modernization in higher education. www.sussex.ac.uk/cheer/documents/cheer_srhe_symposium_2009.pdf

At follow-on conference to the 1998 Morphe conference held at Deakin University in Ausralia was organized by Mark Goulthorpe. It was stated in Plan 60 (http://sap.mit.edu/resources/portfolio/visionaries/, para3) "many people have come to look at digital technology as simply a useful tool. And the dreams of the early pioneers, who saw in the technology a potential for profound changes to the very mentality of the profession, are being lost in the preference to talk of it simply as a tool. It is being ‘dumbed back’, in Goulthorpe’s terms, to a techno-rationalism -- I’ve got a tool and this is what I can do -- which seems, to him, to revert to a Machine Age mentality, all about efficiency and performance."

Another critic of technorationalism, Denis Walsh (2009), writes about the subject in relation to medical issues, specifically in regard to pain and the use of epidurals in normal childbirth. He states that, "our society equates all scientific advances with progress and so believe that in relation to pain, technology and drugs have either prevented pain from emerging or treated it effectively when it does.” He goes on to list and describe the multitude of negative repercussions from epidural use.

In an excerpt on page 275 from Barbara Maria Stafford's book ''A Field Guide to a New Meta-Field: Bridging the Humanities-Neurosciences Divide'' there is mention of the term Technorationalism to describe the architectural genius of early twentieth century architects that used science as well as organic function in their building designs. They were looking to the future and hypothesizing the use and function of their creations as well as the artistic appeal. This scientific approach was not immediately accepted by their peers.--970338297

In an article by Lin Chou Cheng (2014), she attempts to illustrate how art can be appraised and evaluated in the marketplace objectively through the adoption of a criteria-marking scheme that is techno-rational centric (Cheng, 2014). (Kirkman) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262603434_From_Subjectivity_to_Objective_Evaluation_A_Techno-Rationalist_Approach_of_Assessment_Design_for_Art_Design_Education

Business application of a techno-rationalist

The techno-rationalist is broken down into two components. The techno aspect is the ability to apply a definition to the products which can be produced technologically and determine goals which can be attained through technological means. The rationalist aspect of the word is the idea or tendency in today's society to evaluate processes and methods in cost-benefit terms and attempt to rationalize them by those standards. Techno-rationalist in the business world are focused on quantifiable outcomes and how those can be achieved through technological terms.

Lankshear (1997) describes "a powerful, intrusive, highly regulatory 'techno-rationalist business world view'" as an assemblage of "values, purposes, beliefs and ways of doing things" commonly seen as originating in and informing practices in business. The techno-rationalist view is an amalgam of "techno" and "rationalist" components. The techno-rationalist view underpins parts of The_SET_mindset. S - Strategic - links with the "rationalist" component in that it assumes the capability of making a rationale decision about strategy. T - Tree-like - links with the "techno" component in that it assumes the utility and ability to engage in top-down decomposition. Techno-rationalist business sees value in ideas such as: cost-effective, lean and mean, quality-controlled, quality-assuring, focused on the bottom line, value-adding, competitive-edged, efficient, rationalised, and 'uniform standards across all sites of activity'. Lankshear, C. (1997). Language and the new capitalism. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 1(4), 309–321. doi:10.1080/1360311970010402 - 970326125

Technology as Politics: The Critical Theory of Technology

The critical theory of technology includes technology as an agent to be dealt with in political communications. Unlike humans, technology challenges the norm as unworkable. Sometimes this idea can be confused with a common assumption of techno-rationalism-that the technology itself imposes a logic on discourse. This is not what is meant by considering technology as an agent. Technologies are open to application and development which not inflexible to the political will. Some configurations work, some cannot work, and many others may remain uncertain. Specific technologies may or may not be possible, and the only way to arrive at a valid conclusion is to research and commit resources for exploring the possibilities.970287121 http://www.peterasaro.org/writing/asaro%20pd.pdf

Technorationalism in Education

The educational realm is an extremely important place for the development of individuals and the grooming of generations. Often, teachers enter this domain with the hopes and dreams of affecting the lives of youth and using new technology to effectively communicate information. However, this is not always the case. When new technology is introduced to a school system, it may be thrown into the schools without a system to develop curriculum and teaching methods to best use this technology. Pedagogy and curriculum should be developed by teachers prior to the mass acceptance of technology within a school system. In this manner these few can train other teachers on how to effectively use the technology. Additionally, professional development is a critical piece of the puzzle when establishing teacher empowerment - 970358685. When teachers are adequately trained in technology integration, they are able to create "more creative,customized, collaborative lessons" (Holcomb, 2009, p. 51) - 970358685.

It is important that technology in schools be teacher-driven. Among the considerations necessary in designing curriculum, then, are effective instructional design, quality instruction, sound pedagogical techniques, and effective instructional technology. --970277505

Usually the decision to rapidly push technology into a classroom usually stems the technorationalist. A classic case of this emphasis and excitement on technology and not pedagogy comes from the pre-1980s, when it was decided to place a TV and VCR within every classroom in order to revolutionize teaching and boost the educational experience. This method was widely used as a military training method and was highly successful - 970041219. However, post 1980s implementation into the general education classroom was done without forethought of what curriculum should be placed behind this method to drive the instruction. More than likely, a technorationalist decided the newest technology would inherently equal a better teaching experience, which would result in a greater educational experience. Even now, there are those within administration that desire to place technology within every classroom in the hopes of driving up test scores without equipping the teachers to properly use it. – 970284333

Metelerkamp (2013), in his Master's thesis, examined the use of physical analogue clocks to teach the concept of time to 3rd and 4th graders in South Africa. He found that the use of the analogue clock had several beneficial learning outcomes. These included the promotion of internalizing lesson concepts, and the promotion between students in articulating concepts related to time. This is an example of when older technology outweighs newer technology in learning outcome. The data collected by Metelerkamp represented deep learning experiences of these learners. A digital clock, an example of new technology, lacks many of the physical components of an analogue clock and cannot replicate the factors that promoted deep learning in these children. This study may be an indicator that one area of concern in which educators need to examine when designing lessons is whether the technology produces surface-level task reproduction, or deep learning. There are times when simple replication of tasks is the goal, if not, the proper tool that promotes deep learning may be the better choice, even if it isn't the newest technology. AMD90

Schools across the globe are looking at ways to increase access to technology. One way K-12 schools are combating this issue is to allow the students to bring in their own device (BYOD) to use in the classroom. This allows more students to have access to technology as students who are not able to bring their device may use the school’s device (Chen, 2015). Increased access to technology does not mean that the students will utilize it meaningfully and purposefully. Nor does it mean that the teachers are capable of learning each device to help the students troubleshoot issues. It simply means that the students have a way to navigate the Internet or an app. (Andi Canaday)

This approach caters the variety of backgrounds and learning levels students bring to an educational setting. A study conducted in an Australian university examined the learning outcomes of undergraduate students who chose to challenge themselves through a technology-facilitated project outside of the traditional coursework requirements. The project provided a more advanced option to students who were potentially more familiar with the course content than others. Results indicated the technology kits and support tools provided facilitated and enhanced their learning beyond the project’s scope.

As it relates to educational research, Kalantzis and Cook (2014) describe technorationalism as a narrow kind of systematicity that is often less-than reflective. It is technical control without adequate ethical reflection and a pragmatism without a broader view of consequences. (970340029)

Technorationalism and Social Changes

Technorationalism is a philosophy that has the potential to initiate social changes on a very broad scale. There have been many philosophical movements throughout history such as the Age of Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Reason)which promoted the philosophical viewpoint that reason was a logical choice to effect societal change and the growth of knowledge. Similar to this movement technorationalism promotes the viewpoint that all societies’ problems will have a rational technological solution to them. In an article written by William P. Ryan (2001) in addressing how to run non-profit organizations (many of which are geared to change society in some fashion) he promotes the idea that the philosophy of technorationalism can be effective in promoting non-profit organizations by the use of a simple formula which is Programs + Evaluation + Replication = Social Progress. Ryan further explains that once an effective program has been created then it should be evaluated to determine how successful it is. Once the program is proven to be successful then it should be replicated with other non-profits to duplicate the success. The believe is that if this program is successful once it will be over and over again and then by the use of the available technology it should be easy to replicate and implement these social changes

The idea that technology can have a significant impact on social issues is certainly not new, especially when it comes to persons in low socio-economic situations. Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook wrote in the paper Facebook Connectivity Project that “Expanding Internet access could create another 140 million new jobs, lift 160 million people out of poverty, and reduce child mortality by hundreds of thousands of lives,”. He drams of expanded internet connectivity around the world with the thought that it can improve social situations everywhere. 970043462

 

Dr. Fogg realized in the early 90s that technology had potential to have positive application, instead exploitative (Wagner, 2011, para. 11). Initially, Dr. Fogg did not consider the dark side of persuasive technology, essentially a machine that controls behavior. This was brought to his attention at conferences, where findings were presented, and “people started getting concerned. Some people were saying that I was creating the technology for the atom bomb" (Wagner, 2011, para. 17).  Dr. Fogg created the Peace Innovation project in 2009 to response to the concerns. Dr. Fogg stated, "Tools and systems can connect people like never before. They can connect them faster and better than ever -- and we should apply that to creating peace in the world"(Wagner, 2011, para. 18).

The Peace innovation project and the Persuasive Technology Lab are still operating on the campus of Stanford University. 

Technorationalism vs. Technoromanticism

Technorationalism opposes the notion of technoromanticism which intimates that even the most current and innovative of technologies are based upon old-fashioned concepts, embedded in the traditions of the past. Technoromanticism

‘Technorationalism’ is the mode in the terms of which we tend to think about environmental issues, and the WWF report exemplifies that. But then, this is itself explained by the fact that the WWF report is written under particular socio-political conditions prevailing in the modern industrial society. For instance, the main problem is identified by the report as that of needing “to find ways for the average person to live well on less than half the current global average footprint” (WWF 2006, p. 28) and the means to tackle it are identified as political and technological.

'Anti-Technorationalization:' The contemporary Luddites or Neo-Luddism, according to some technorationalists, are the activists or movements against new technologies. Depending on the country, neo-luddites can be among politicians, engineers, technicians, staff in schools, managers and supervisors in business and industry. Since the main concept of technorationalists is been identified to promote new technologies to the society, e,g. "all barriers against new technologies should be removed",anti-technorationalization is promoting Luddism, see also primitivism, to react against new utilities of technology in society.970056483

Arguments Against Technorationalism

Opponents of the technorationalist belief, such as Evgeny Morozov, author of To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism argue that the chaotic, rapid, anonymous, and even bandwagon nature of technological solutionism present distinct challenges in the usage of technology to resolve social issues. Morozov writes, "Internet-centrism... has the disturbing power to recast old, discarded, and retrograde ideas as unique, original, and progressive sheerly by virtue of their association with 'the Internet'". He mentions, "geeks are impatient with politics because they think that it involves nothing but talk. For them, deliberation is the cancer in the body of modern democracy," -- and indeed, part of the concept of technorationalism is to streamline and remove barriers to communication. But the matter of whether technorationalism encourages rational debate or stifles it in favor of "all or nothing" style diplomacy may be the crux of a greater argument: because of the ever-changing nature of technology, in a true technocracy, is there room for an opposing opinion, or is technorationalism by nature a strictly progressive movement? --Kab58 (talk) 14:22, 8 July 2013 (UTC)

A common example against technorationalism, even though it is a myth, would be that NASA spent millions of dollars to develop an anti-gravity pen to use in space and the Russians just used a pencil instead. [ http://www.snopes.com/business/genius/spacepen.asp]

While there are endless benefits of using technology in our everyday lives and our classrooms, many argue that sometimes technology is not the answer. Technology initiatives are incapable of sustained practice without an innovative and dynamic teacher - 970358685. Weston and Bain (2010) argued that laptop computers in a 1:1 initiative "are not technological tools; rather, they are cognitive tools that are holistically integrated into teaching and learning processes" (p. 11) of each school and classroom. - 970358685 (http://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/jtla/articla/download/1611/1458)

We are filling up the world with technology and devices, but losing sight of what the "stuff" is for. John Thackara attempts to answer the questions, "What is this stuff for? What value does it add to our lives?" in his book In the Bubble: Designing in a complex world. [5]

As with the introduction of any new technologies, a person must determine if the technology is appropriate and the most suitable choice. This could also apply to teachers in a classroom. [6] Teachers using technology just for the idea of integrating technology into the classroom and because it is available is not appropriate, it needs to be technology that is deemed necessary, supporting, enhancing, and conducive to the outcome of the learning. 970287282

The use of technology in educational curricula should reflect the use found in the workplace and society in general. Technorationalism uses measures of effectiveness, quality standards and increased productivity to promote itself as the preferred and possibly only way to achieve results. According to Preston (2004), a technorationalist ethos threatens to close down all other paradigms, no other alternatives are acceptable and effectiveness becomes indistinguishable from moral action. Technorationalism cannot be allowed to silence alternative voices. [970250276]

Here are some reasons why a technology solution may not always be the best solution. Many of these explain that instead of starting with technology and viewing that as the solution, people should start with an understanding of the problem itself.[7] [8] [9] [10]

"I’m going to be attacked for daring to suggest that our technologies aren’t always the best solution for every scenario. What the systems can do is process the dull stuff quickly and accurately. They can’t do the kind of processes that a newborn baby can do, yet they are taking over in the workplace. Most of the time they do a perfectly good job, but from time to time we have to take over when the wrong decisions are made for the right reasons." -Jeff Dray [11]

I will use the past examples of how efficiency in the US Navy Fleet has decreased due to the use of simulators as the basis of training in fleet schools. This has removed human instructors that share their experiences (both good and bad), lessons learned and out of the box thinking that is pertinent to the rigors of shipboard combat and non-combat scenarios. The driving force behind simulator training is cost effectiveness, cheaper to use simulators to training than it is to get a ship underway for training. This cost effectiveness approach was used to train reservists prior to the War on Terrorism, using simulator based training to teach firearm proficiency and shoot no shoot scenarios, This lead to a large number of reservists being unprepared for actual live fire situations in a urban setting and set them up for failure. Since then the Navy has established a combat skills school to address these shortfalls of simulator training. - 970258614

References

In her article on 'New Directions in Research into Learning Cultures in Online Education', Robin Goodfellow examines concerns with the influence on international learners' individual and group identity of prevalent 'western'approaches to online education (social constructivism, techno-rationalism), and the English language, both of which are being disseminated as part of the increasing internationalism of trade. The key issue is seen as how to provide 'culturally appropriate instruction'." (http://www.networkedlearningconference.org.uk/past/nlc2008/abstracts/PDFs/Goodfellow_553-559.pdf)

Sarah Goldhagen used the term techno-rationalist in an article she authored for the Harvard Design Magazine (Fall 2007/Winter 2008). She provided a comparison to the techno-rationalism and organic functionalism from two known theoretical strains used in modernist practice architectural designs. “Techno-rationalists began from the object, organic functionalists from its users. Techno-rationalists employed (or purported to employ) mathematical systems of geometry or physics; organic functionalists shunned such abstractions (even as they occasionally used them) in favor of the contingencies of site and the patterns of human social interaction. Techno-rationalism revered systematic, parsed out logic while organic functionalism preferred pragmatic analysis of the empirical world. Techno-rationalism chose straight lines, organic functionalism curves” (p. 40). Reference of article: http://www.sarahwilliamsgoldhagen.com/articles/Ultraviolet.pdf

In this slideshow, the author visits terms about change and technology that helps new researchers become more comfortable with technorationalism. Please enjoy "Herding cats and losing weight: How to survive learning and technology." http://www.slideshare.net/davidj/herding-cats-and-losing-weighthow-to-improve-learning-and-teaching

Dissanayake, D. (1995)Home Aestheticus: Where art comes from and why. University of Washington Press.

In the world of higher education technorationalism is often characterized by hypermodernization of including current technology. Read more about these efforts. www.sussex.ac.uk/cheer/documents/cheer_srhe_symposium_2009.pdf Techno-rationalism which emphasises linking learning and assessment to specifiable criteria and tangible outcomes (Orr, 2005).(hw8)

Techno-rationalism which emphasises linking learning and assessment to specifiable criteria and tangible outcomes (Orr, 2005). ...

http://www.zeitschrift-schreiben.eu/Beitraege/bailey_Academic_staff.pdf

According to Kalantzis (2005), technorationalism can be associated with a danger of developing formal reasoning that is not engaged with human nature and consequences.

"A technorationalist society considers pain as either preventable or treatable." (Lauritzen and Sachs, 2001) Lauritzen S, Sachs L. (2001) Normality, risk and the future: implicit communication of threat in health surveillance. Sociology of Health and Illness 23(4): 497-516. “The techorationalist approach does not suffice to give a full account of the ways that technology is woven into fabric the culture.” Erkki Huhtamo: From cybernation to interaction: A contribution to an archeology of interactivity, from The digital dialectic: new essays on new media Peter Lunenfeld

Lankshear, C. (1997). Language and the new capitalism. The International Journal of Inclusive Education, 1(4), 309-321.

Oliver, R. R. (2006). Exploring a Technology-Facilitated Solution to Cater for Advanced Students in Large Undergraduate Classes. Journal Of Computer Assisted Learning, 22(1), 1-12.

Preston, D. S. (2004). Virtual Learning and Higher Education. Rodopi:New York, NY. [970250276]

Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). New York, NY: The Free Press.

Techno-rationalists started from the entity, organic functionalists from its users. Techno-rationalists used math-based formal systems of geometry or physics. (Williams, 2011)

Williams (as cited in Stafford, 2011). A field guide to a new meta-field: Bridging the humanities-neurosciences divide. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press

Rudolf Mrázek, Engineers of Happy Land: technology and nationalism in a colony (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), p. 10

Chen, B. (2015). Exploring the digital divide: The use of digital technologies in ontario public schools. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 41(3), 23. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.lib.uwf.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.lib.uwf.edu/docview/1773223522?accountid=14787

Ormerod, R. J. (2016). Critical Rationalism for Practice and its Relationship to Critical Systems Thinking. Systems Research & Behavioral

    Science, 33(1), 4-23. doi:10.1002/sres.2326

Hsee, C. , Yang, Y., Xingshan, Z., & Hanwei, W. (2015). Lay Rationalism: Individual Differences in Using Reason Versus Feelings to Guide

    Decisions. Journal Of Marketing Research (JMR), 52(1), 134-146.

Metelerkamp, R. G. (2013) The importance’s of the physical analogue clock in mediating learning of analogue clock time in Grade 4 learners.

    retrieved https://www.ru.ac.za/media/rhodesuniversity/content/sanc/documents/CorrectionsRGM4FinalThesisSubmission15Dec2013%20(2).pdf

Cheng, L. (2014). From Subjectivity to Objective Evaluation: A Techno-Rationalist Approach of Assessment Design for Art and Design Education. Conference: International Colloquium Of Art and

       Design Education Research  Penang, Malaysia.