No doctrine of Quakerism has sparked so much controversy as the doctrine of "immediate r... more No doctrine of Quakerism has sparked so much controversy as the doctrine of "immediate revelation," arguably Quakerism's most central and distinctive tenet. Quakers believed in a doctrine which they called the "Inward Light," which they understood to be the real living, spiritual presence of Christ witnessing and teaching them directly, without "outward" mediation of Church hierarchies, sacraments or liturgies, or even of Scripture itself. The idea that direct access to God is possible without the mediation of official ecclesial or political hierarchies is indeed radical, with quite radical implications. The essential task of Quakerism's first 50 years (1650-1700) was essentially taken up with working out the implications of this radical tenet, both within the burgeoning Quaker movement, and without, through apologetic engagement with an often quite hostile wider society and governing authorities. The evolution of Quaker discourse about the immediacy of the Inward Light evolved from impromptu prophecies and exhortations, to polemical tracts, to apologetic treatises, and, finally to the polished scholarly work of early Quakerism's most articulate and enlightened apologist and theologian, Robert Barclay (1649-1690). Joseph Pfeiffer, “In Search of an Alternative Enlightenment” - 2 - In this paper, I want to briefly overview the emergence of the Quaker doctrine of immediate revelation (Inward Light) as a popular social phenomenon, within the context of nascent enlightenment impulse. This will involve proposing that we look at Enlightenment, not only as a monolithic intellectual project of the 18th century, but as a complex emergent social and historical phenomenon with multiple variations, through the Early Modern, and into the Modern period. Then, I wish to examine how Robert Barclay (1648-1686), the early Quaker apologist, articulated one religious strand of this impulse (the Quaker epistemology of immediate revelation) and attempted to contribute a Quaker voice to the emerging Enlightenment of the late 17th century. Finally, I will suggest ways in which Barclay's articulation may be helpful in the early 21st century, as we are in a critical reappraisal of the Modern Enlightenment project.
No doctrine of Quakerism has sparked so much controversy as the doctrine of "immediate revelation... more No doctrine of Quakerism has sparked so much controversy as the doctrine of "immediate revelation," arguably Quakerism's most central and distinctive tenet. Quakers believed in a doctrine which they called the "Inward Light," which they understood to be the real living, spiritual presence of Christ witnessing and teaching them directly, without "outward" mediation of Church hierarchies, sacraments or liturgies, or even of Scripture itself. The idea that direct access to God is possible without the mediation of official ecclesial or political hierarchies is indeed radical, with quite radical implications. The essential task of Quakerism's first 50 years (1650-1700) was essentially taken up with working out the implications of this radical tenet, both within the burgeoning Quaker movement, and without, through apologetic engagement with an often quite hostile wider society and governing authorities. The evolution of Quaker discourse about the immediacy of the Inward Light evolved from impromptu prophecies and exhortations, to polemical tracts, to apologetic treatises, and, finally to the polished scholarly work of early Quakerism's most articulate and enlightened apologist and theologian, Robert Barclay (1649-1690). Joseph Pfeiffer, “In Search of an Alternative Enlightenment” - 2 - In this paper, I want to briefly overview the emergence of the Quaker doctrine of immediate revelation (Inward Light) as a popular social phenomenon, within the context of nascent enlightenment impulse. This will involve proposing that we look at Enlightenment, not only as a monolithic intellectual project of the 18th century, but as a complex emergent social and historical phenomenon with multiple variations, through the Early Modern, and into the Modern period. Then, I wish to examine how Robert Barclay (1648-1686), the early Quaker apologist, articulated one religious strand of this impulse (the Quaker epistemology of immediate revelation) and attempted to contribute a Quaker voice to the emerging Enlightenment of the late 17th century. Finally, I will suggest ways in which Barclay's articulation may be helpful in the early 21st century, as we are in a critical reappraisal of the Modern Enlightenment project.
If “Big Gods” evolved in part because of their ability to morally regulate groups of people who c... more If “Big Gods” evolved in part because of their ability to morally regulate groups of people who cannot count on kin or reciprocal altruism to get along (Norenzayan, 2013), then powerful gods would tend to be good gods. If the mechanism for this cooperation is some kind of fear of supernatural punishment (Johnson & Bering, 2006), then we may expect that mighty gods tend to be punishing gods. The present study is a statistical analysis of superhuman being concepts from 20 countries on five continents to explore whether the goodness of a god is related to its mightiness. Gods that looked more like the God of classical theism and gods that were low in anthropomorphism were more likely to be regarded as morally good and to be the target of religious practices. Mighty gods were not, however, especially likely to punish or to be a “high god.”
Are the places that superhuman beings purportedly act and dwell randomly or arbitrarily distribut... more Are the places that superhuman beings purportedly act and dwell randomly or arbitrarily distributed? Inspired by theoretical work in cognitive science of religion, descriptions of superhuman beings (e.g., ancestors, demons, ghosts, gods, spirits) were solicited from informants in 20 countries on five continents, resulting in 108 usable descriptions, including information about these beings’ properties, their dwelling location, and whether they were the target of rituals. Whether superhuman beings are the subject of religious and ritual practices appeared to co-vary in relation to both features of physical geography and cognitive factors. Good gods were more likely the focus of religious practices than evil gods, and where the gods are thought to dwell mattered. If either the being was thought to dwell in a dangerous place or a resource rich place, it was more likely to have practices directed at it.
No doctrine of Quakerism has sparked so much controversy as the doctrine of "immediate r... more No doctrine of Quakerism has sparked so much controversy as the doctrine of "immediate revelation," arguably Quakerism's most central and distinctive tenet. Quakers believed in a doctrine which they called the "Inward Light," which they understood to be the real living, spiritual presence of Christ witnessing and teaching them directly, without "outward" mediation of Church hierarchies, sacraments or liturgies, or even of Scripture itself. The idea that direct access to God is possible without the mediation of official ecclesial or political hierarchies is indeed radical, with quite radical implications. The essential task of Quakerism's first 50 years (1650-1700) was essentially taken up with working out the implications of this radical tenet, both within the burgeoning Quaker movement, and without, through apologetic engagement with an often quite hostile wider society and governing authorities. The evolution of Quaker discourse about the immediacy of the Inward Light evolved from impromptu prophecies and exhortations, to polemical tracts, to apologetic treatises, and, finally to the polished scholarly work of early Quakerism's most articulate and enlightened apologist and theologian, Robert Barclay (1649-1690). Joseph Pfeiffer, “In Search of an Alternative Enlightenment” - 2 - In this paper, I want to briefly overview the emergence of the Quaker doctrine of immediate revelation (Inward Light) as a popular social phenomenon, within the context of nascent enlightenment impulse. This will involve proposing that we look at Enlightenment, not only as a monolithic intellectual project of the 18th century, but as a complex emergent social and historical phenomenon with multiple variations, through the Early Modern, and into the Modern period. Then, I wish to examine how Robert Barclay (1648-1686), the early Quaker apologist, articulated one religious strand of this impulse (the Quaker epistemology of immediate revelation) and attempted to contribute a Quaker voice to the emerging Enlightenment of the late 17th century. Finally, I will suggest ways in which Barclay's articulation may be helpful in the early 21st century, as we are in a critical reappraisal of the Modern Enlightenment project.
No doctrine of Quakerism has sparked so much controversy as the doctrine of "immediate revelation... more No doctrine of Quakerism has sparked so much controversy as the doctrine of "immediate revelation," arguably Quakerism's most central and distinctive tenet. Quakers believed in a doctrine which they called the "Inward Light," which they understood to be the real living, spiritual presence of Christ witnessing and teaching them directly, without "outward" mediation of Church hierarchies, sacraments or liturgies, or even of Scripture itself. The idea that direct access to God is possible without the mediation of official ecclesial or political hierarchies is indeed radical, with quite radical implications. The essential task of Quakerism's first 50 years (1650-1700) was essentially taken up with working out the implications of this radical tenet, both within the burgeoning Quaker movement, and without, through apologetic engagement with an often quite hostile wider society and governing authorities. The evolution of Quaker discourse about the immediacy of the Inward Light evolved from impromptu prophecies and exhortations, to polemical tracts, to apologetic treatises, and, finally to the polished scholarly work of early Quakerism's most articulate and enlightened apologist and theologian, Robert Barclay (1649-1690). Joseph Pfeiffer, “In Search of an Alternative Enlightenment” - 2 - In this paper, I want to briefly overview the emergence of the Quaker doctrine of immediate revelation (Inward Light) as a popular social phenomenon, within the context of nascent enlightenment impulse. This will involve proposing that we look at Enlightenment, not only as a monolithic intellectual project of the 18th century, but as a complex emergent social and historical phenomenon with multiple variations, through the Early Modern, and into the Modern period. Then, I wish to examine how Robert Barclay (1648-1686), the early Quaker apologist, articulated one religious strand of this impulse (the Quaker epistemology of immediate revelation) and attempted to contribute a Quaker voice to the emerging Enlightenment of the late 17th century. Finally, I will suggest ways in which Barclay's articulation may be helpful in the early 21st century, as we are in a critical reappraisal of the Modern Enlightenment project.
If “Big Gods” evolved in part because of their ability to morally regulate groups of people who c... more If “Big Gods” evolved in part because of their ability to morally regulate groups of people who cannot count on kin or reciprocal altruism to get along (Norenzayan, 2013), then powerful gods would tend to be good gods. If the mechanism for this cooperation is some kind of fear of supernatural punishment (Johnson & Bering, 2006), then we may expect that mighty gods tend to be punishing gods. The present study is a statistical analysis of superhuman being concepts from 20 countries on five continents to explore whether the goodness of a god is related to its mightiness. Gods that looked more like the God of classical theism and gods that were low in anthropomorphism were more likely to be regarded as morally good and to be the target of religious practices. Mighty gods were not, however, especially likely to punish or to be a “high god.”
Are the places that superhuman beings purportedly act and dwell randomly or arbitrarily distribut... more Are the places that superhuman beings purportedly act and dwell randomly or arbitrarily distributed? Inspired by theoretical work in cognitive science of religion, descriptions of superhuman beings (e.g., ancestors, demons, ghosts, gods, spirits) were solicited from informants in 20 countries on five continents, resulting in 108 usable descriptions, including information about these beings’ properties, their dwelling location, and whether they were the target of rituals. Whether superhuman beings are the subject of religious and ritual practices appeared to co-vary in relation to both features of physical geography and cognitive factors. Good gods were more likely the focus of religious practices than evil gods, and where the gods are thought to dwell mattered. If either the being was thought to dwell in a dangerous place or a resource rich place, it was more likely to have practices directed at it.
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