Ashley received her PhD in Organizational Psychology from the University of Maryland, College Park. Her research centers on trust dynamics in organizations, emotions in conflict management and levels of analysis theory and research.
This article presents an integrative review of the rapidly growing body of research on trust in w... more This article presents an integrative review of the rapidly growing body of research on trust in work teams. We start by analyzing prominent definitions of trust and their theoretical foundations , followed by different conceptualizations of trust in teams emphasizing its multilevel, dynamic, and emergent nature. We then review the empirical research and its underlying theoretical perspectives concerning the emergence and development of trust in teams. On the basis of this review, we propose an integrated conceptual framework that organizes the field and can advance knowledge of the multilevel nature of trust in teams. Our conclusion is that trust in teams resides at multiple levels of analysis simultaneously, is subject to factors across levels in organizations, and impacts performance and other relevant outcomes both at the individual and team levels. We argue that research should not only differentiate between interpersonal trust between members from collective trust at the team level but also emphasize the interplay within and between these levels by considering cross‐level influences and dynamics. We conclude by proposing 4 major directions for future research and 3 critical methodological recommendations for study designs derived from our review and framework.
Gratitude is a valuable emotion with an array of functional outcomes. Nonetheless, research on gr... more Gratitude is a valuable emotion with an array of functional outcomes. Nonetheless, research on gratitude in organizations is limited. In this paper, we develop a multilevel model of gratitude comprised of episodic gratitude at the event level, persistent gratitude at the individual level, and collective gratitude at the organizational level. We then consider the types of human resource initiatives that organizations can develop to cultivate employee gratitude and the contingencies of gratitude's emergence at the individual and organizational levels of analysis. Finally, we elucidate the benefits of gratitude for organizations and their employees. The sum result is a deeper understanding of how gratitude unfolds in organizations and the role that organizations themselves can play in influencing emotions at multiple levels in the workplace.
Although previous research has linked hyperbolic discounting, an economic model of impatience, to... more Although previous research has linked hyperbolic discounting, an economic model of impatience, to negative outcomes such as smoking, problem drinking, lowered academic achievement, and ineffective career search decisions, there is little research that addresses how impatience may impact performance at the bargaining table and whether Americans have a disadvantage in negotiations as compared to other cultural groups as a result. Using the subjective line task, we replicate previous research showing that subjective time perceptions underpin hyperbolic discounting (Study 1a, n 5 101) and are related to estimations and perceptions of durations in a timed experiment and impatience in recalled
Trust violations occur during social interactions, yet little research has studied trust
in the a... more Trust violations occur during social interactions, yet little research has studied trust in the aftermath of violations. In this study, we examine how trustors respond to trust violations differently, depending on their levels of collectivism and whether the violation is from an ingroup or outgroup member. We argue that although highly collectivistic individuals are forgiving after minor ingroup trust violations, when ingroup violations are severe, they will react negatively – lose trust easily and restore trust with much difficulty – effectively treating the ingroup member as an outgroup member. Individuals who are low on collectivism, by contrast, do not differentiate the severity of violations from ingroup and outgroup members. Two studies, one online attitudinal study using scenarios and one laboratory experiment using an iterated trust game, were conducted to test this hypothesis. Study 1 illustrated these effects, mediated by trustor anger. Study 2 replicated these findings with actual behaviour in a trust game and further showed that trustor’s group identification exacerbated these effects.
In reaction to the growing attention to connecting individual-level and unit-level constructs, we... more In reaction to the growing attention to connecting individual-level and unit-level constructs, we first briefly review emergence terminology and theories that address the dynamic process by which a higher-level phenomenon emerges from lower-level elements. Next, we review the extant theory and research on emergence and convergence in organization science using an organizing framework that simultaneously considers the content area of lower-level elements, the emergent factors, and the target of the emergent property. In addition to organizing and bridging current literature on emergence and convergence, gaps of existing research and new directions for future research, including compilation and divergence, are identified.
Despite of the importance of trust across multiple levels in organizations, extant reviews have f... more Despite of the importance of trust across multiple levels in organizations, extant reviews have focused predominantly on trust at the individual level. A systematic review of trust research across levels and trust referents is sorely needed to synthesize the growing number of both micro and macro studies on this topic. Moreover, as trust is a linchpin for divergent areas, such as negotiation, leadership, team processes, human resource management, organizational change, entrepreneurship, and strategic alliances, a multilevel-multireferent review of trust can facilitate integration in the field of organizational sciences. In this review, we adopt a levels of analysis approach to organize the research on trust between 2000 and 2011 in multiple referents that include interpersonal, teams, and organizations at the individual, team, and organizational levels and analyze the similarities and differences in antecedents, consequences, and theoretical perspectives dominant at each level. Building on this foundation, we further identify the current strengths, weaknesses, and research gaps, offer recommendations for integration across levels and referents, and discuss lingering questions that research so far has overlooked. In doing so, our review offers a systematic and comprehensive view of the current state of the trust literature in organizational sciences and provides a blueprint for future research.
Do extraverts enjoy a higher level of self-esteem and well-being in an extraverted culture than i... more Do extraverts enjoy a higher level of self-esteem and well-being in an extraverted culture than in an introverted culture? We know little about the answer to this question, even as intercultural relocation has become ubiquitous and is perennially growing. Whether as permanent expatriates, temporary residents, foreign students, or emissaries, people often find themselves in cultural milieus different from their societies of origin. Even within one’s native culture, one’s personality can still be different from the personalities of most other people. This study examined whether such a mismatch in personality between individuals and culture affects individuals’ self-esteem and well-being. The authors propose a person-culture match hypothesis, whereby the match between individuals’ personality and aggregate cultural personality enhances the relationship between individuals’ personality and positive outcomes. Across two studies, using data including over 7,000 people from 28 societies, multilevel analyses supported the person-culture match hypothesis, demonstrating that a match between individual and cultural personality strengthens the positive effects the personality trait has on the individual’s self-esteem and well-being. Furthermore, these results were replicated across multiple personality attributes, including extraversion, promotion-focus, and locomotive regulatory mode. This research holds practical implications for the well-being of both cultural natives and migrants. While numerous factors contribute to psychological well-being, all things being equal, people who match with their cultural environment will experience better psychological well-being than those who do not. In other words, extraverts do seem to enjoy a higher level of self-esteem and well-being in an extraverted culture than in an introverted culture. Additionally, when relocating personnel, organizations cannot assume expatriates will enjoy a similar level of well-being in a host culture as in the native country and should consider how their personality matches with that of the host culture.
Levels of trust in a social relationship can fluctuate over time. However, few studies have direc... more Levels of trust in a social relationship can fluctuate over time. However, few studies have directly examined the different trust decisions involved as the relationship evolves and delineated the various trust patterns that arise from these decisions. Our analysis examined the chief concerns in trust decisions during the phases of trust formation, dissolution, and restoration. These trust decisions across phases give rise to trust profiles, which have not been identified in the literature before. We focused on how individual and social contextual factors affect these patterns. Our model highlights the need to consider multiple trust phases both theoretically and empirically to offer a more holistic understanding of how trust unfolds in social relationships.
Variance, as a statistical index, is a critical tool in analyzing and interpreting results of stu... more Variance, as a statistical index, is a critical tool in analyzing and interpreting results of studies. However, we purport that variance can also be construed as a meaningful construct. While variance around the mean is typically treated as error, the degree of variance may indicate something important that can further our understanding of group and organizational processes and functions. For example, in recent years, the degree of variance in perceptions of group or organizational climate has been used to denote the construct of the strength of climate (e.g. Lindell & Brandt, 2000) and the degree of variability in demographic, background or personality has been linked to team coordination and outcomes (Lau & Murnighan, 1998). In contrast to composition models, compilation models (Kozlowski & Klein, 2000) inherently include variance whereby individuals differ on some attribute or ability yet the pattern or configuration of different attributes assembles to allow for emergence of a team construct (e.g., team knowledge structures, Marks, et al., 2000). In this chapter, we explore variance as a meaningful construct, elucidating four ways–linear, nonlinear, patterned and clustered–to consider variance across different levels of analysis.
This article presents an integrative review of the rapidly growing body of research on trust in w... more This article presents an integrative review of the rapidly growing body of research on trust in work teams. We start by analyzing prominent definitions of trust and their theoretical foundations , followed by different conceptualizations of trust in teams emphasizing its multilevel, dynamic, and emergent nature. We then review the empirical research and its underlying theoretical perspectives concerning the emergence and development of trust in teams. On the basis of this review, we propose an integrated conceptual framework that organizes the field and can advance knowledge of the multilevel nature of trust in teams. Our conclusion is that trust in teams resides at multiple levels of analysis simultaneously, is subject to factors across levels in organizations, and impacts performance and other relevant outcomes both at the individual and team levels. We argue that research should not only differentiate between interpersonal trust between members from collective trust at the team level but also emphasize the interplay within and between these levels by considering cross‐level influences and dynamics. We conclude by proposing 4 major directions for future research and 3 critical methodological recommendations for study designs derived from our review and framework.
Gratitude is a valuable emotion with an array of functional outcomes. Nonetheless, research on gr... more Gratitude is a valuable emotion with an array of functional outcomes. Nonetheless, research on gratitude in organizations is limited. In this paper, we develop a multilevel model of gratitude comprised of episodic gratitude at the event level, persistent gratitude at the individual level, and collective gratitude at the organizational level. We then consider the types of human resource initiatives that organizations can develop to cultivate employee gratitude and the contingencies of gratitude's emergence at the individual and organizational levels of analysis. Finally, we elucidate the benefits of gratitude for organizations and their employees. The sum result is a deeper understanding of how gratitude unfolds in organizations and the role that organizations themselves can play in influencing emotions at multiple levels in the workplace.
Although previous research has linked hyperbolic discounting, an economic model of impatience, to... more Although previous research has linked hyperbolic discounting, an economic model of impatience, to negative outcomes such as smoking, problem drinking, lowered academic achievement, and ineffective career search decisions, there is little research that addresses how impatience may impact performance at the bargaining table and whether Americans have a disadvantage in negotiations as compared to other cultural groups as a result. Using the subjective line task, we replicate previous research showing that subjective time perceptions underpin hyperbolic discounting (Study 1a, n 5 101) and are related to estimations and perceptions of durations in a timed experiment and impatience in recalled
Trust violations occur during social interactions, yet little research has studied trust
in the a... more Trust violations occur during social interactions, yet little research has studied trust in the aftermath of violations. In this study, we examine how trustors respond to trust violations differently, depending on their levels of collectivism and whether the violation is from an ingroup or outgroup member. We argue that although highly collectivistic individuals are forgiving after minor ingroup trust violations, when ingroup violations are severe, they will react negatively – lose trust easily and restore trust with much difficulty – effectively treating the ingroup member as an outgroup member. Individuals who are low on collectivism, by contrast, do not differentiate the severity of violations from ingroup and outgroup members. Two studies, one online attitudinal study using scenarios and one laboratory experiment using an iterated trust game, were conducted to test this hypothesis. Study 1 illustrated these effects, mediated by trustor anger. Study 2 replicated these findings with actual behaviour in a trust game and further showed that trustor’s group identification exacerbated these effects.
In reaction to the growing attention to connecting individual-level and unit-level constructs, we... more In reaction to the growing attention to connecting individual-level and unit-level constructs, we first briefly review emergence terminology and theories that address the dynamic process by which a higher-level phenomenon emerges from lower-level elements. Next, we review the extant theory and research on emergence and convergence in organization science using an organizing framework that simultaneously considers the content area of lower-level elements, the emergent factors, and the target of the emergent property. In addition to organizing and bridging current literature on emergence and convergence, gaps of existing research and new directions for future research, including compilation and divergence, are identified.
Despite of the importance of trust across multiple levels in organizations, extant reviews have f... more Despite of the importance of trust across multiple levels in organizations, extant reviews have focused predominantly on trust at the individual level. A systematic review of trust research across levels and trust referents is sorely needed to synthesize the growing number of both micro and macro studies on this topic. Moreover, as trust is a linchpin for divergent areas, such as negotiation, leadership, team processes, human resource management, organizational change, entrepreneurship, and strategic alliances, a multilevel-multireferent review of trust can facilitate integration in the field of organizational sciences. In this review, we adopt a levels of analysis approach to organize the research on trust between 2000 and 2011 in multiple referents that include interpersonal, teams, and organizations at the individual, team, and organizational levels and analyze the similarities and differences in antecedents, consequences, and theoretical perspectives dominant at each level. Building on this foundation, we further identify the current strengths, weaknesses, and research gaps, offer recommendations for integration across levels and referents, and discuss lingering questions that research so far has overlooked. In doing so, our review offers a systematic and comprehensive view of the current state of the trust literature in organizational sciences and provides a blueprint for future research.
Do extraverts enjoy a higher level of self-esteem and well-being in an extraverted culture than i... more Do extraverts enjoy a higher level of self-esteem and well-being in an extraverted culture than in an introverted culture? We know little about the answer to this question, even as intercultural relocation has become ubiquitous and is perennially growing. Whether as permanent expatriates, temporary residents, foreign students, or emissaries, people often find themselves in cultural milieus different from their societies of origin. Even within one’s native culture, one’s personality can still be different from the personalities of most other people. This study examined whether such a mismatch in personality between individuals and culture affects individuals’ self-esteem and well-being. The authors propose a person-culture match hypothesis, whereby the match between individuals’ personality and aggregate cultural personality enhances the relationship between individuals’ personality and positive outcomes. Across two studies, using data including over 7,000 people from 28 societies, multilevel analyses supported the person-culture match hypothesis, demonstrating that a match between individual and cultural personality strengthens the positive effects the personality trait has on the individual’s self-esteem and well-being. Furthermore, these results were replicated across multiple personality attributes, including extraversion, promotion-focus, and locomotive regulatory mode. This research holds practical implications for the well-being of both cultural natives and migrants. While numerous factors contribute to psychological well-being, all things being equal, people who match with their cultural environment will experience better psychological well-being than those who do not. In other words, extraverts do seem to enjoy a higher level of self-esteem and well-being in an extraverted culture than in an introverted culture. Additionally, when relocating personnel, organizations cannot assume expatriates will enjoy a similar level of well-being in a host culture as in the native country and should consider how their personality matches with that of the host culture.
Levels of trust in a social relationship can fluctuate over time. However, few studies have direc... more Levels of trust in a social relationship can fluctuate over time. However, few studies have directly examined the different trust decisions involved as the relationship evolves and delineated the various trust patterns that arise from these decisions. Our analysis examined the chief concerns in trust decisions during the phases of trust formation, dissolution, and restoration. These trust decisions across phases give rise to trust profiles, which have not been identified in the literature before. We focused on how individual and social contextual factors affect these patterns. Our model highlights the need to consider multiple trust phases both theoretically and empirically to offer a more holistic understanding of how trust unfolds in social relationships.
Variance, as a statistical index, is a critical tool in analyzing and interpreting results of stu... more Variance, as a statistical index, is a critical tool in analyzing and interpreting results of studies. However, we purport that variance can also be construed as a meaningful construct. While variance around the mean is typically treated as error, the degree of variance may indicate something important that can further our understanding of group and organizational processes and functions. For example, in recent years, the degree of variance in perceptions of group or organizational climate has been used to denote the construct of the strength of climate (e.g. Lindell & Brandt, 2000) and the degree of variability in demographic, background or personality has been linked to team coordination and outcomes (Lau & Murnighan, 1998). In contrast to composition models, compilation models (Kozlowski & Klein, 2000) inherently include variance whereby individuals differ on some attribute or ability yet the pattern or configuration of different attributes assembles to allow for emergence of a team construct (e.g., team knowledge structures, Marks, et al., 2000). In this chapter, we explore variance as a meaningful construct, elucidating four ways–linear, nonlinear, patterned and clustered–to consider variance across different levels of analysis.
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in the aftermath of violations. In this study, we examine how trustors respond to
trust violations differently, depending on their levels of collectivism and whether
the violation is from an ingroup or outgroup member. We argue that although
highly collectivistic individuals are forgiving after minor ingroup trust violations,
when ingroup violations are severe, they will react negatively – lose trust easily
and restore trust with much difficulty – effectively treating the ingroup member
as an outgroup member. Individuals who are low on collectivism, by contrast,
do not differentiate the severity of violations from ingroup and outgroup
members. Two studies, one online attitudinal study using scenarios and one
laboratory experiment using an iterated trust game, were conducted to test this
hypothesis. Study 1 illustrated these effects, mediated by trustor anger. Study 2
replicated these findings with actual behaviour in a trust game and further
showed that trustor’s group identification exacerbated these effects.
review emergence terminology and theories that address the dynamic process by which a higher-level phenomenon
emerges from lower-level elements. Next, we review the extant theory and research on emergence
and convergence in organization science using an organizing framework that simultaneously considers the
content area of lower-level elements, the emergent factors, and the target of the emergent property. In addition
to organizing and bridging current literature on emergence and convergence, gaps of existing research and
new directions for future research, including compilation and divergence, are identified.
in the aftermath of violations. In this study, we examine how trustors respond to
trust violations differently, depending on their levels of collectivism and whether
the violation is from an ingroup or outgroup member. We argue that although
highly collectivistic individuals are forgiving after minor ingroup trust violations,
when ingroup violations are severe, they will react negatively – lose trust easily
and restore trust with much difficulty – effectively treating the ingroup member
as an outgroup member. Individuals who are low on collectivism, by contrast,
do not differentiate the severity of violations from ingroup and outgroup
members. Two studies, one online attitudinal study using scenarios and one
laboratory experiment using an iterated trust game, were conducted to test this
hypothesis. Study 1 illustrated these effects, mediated by trustor anger. Study 2
replicated these findings with actual behaviour in a trust game and further
showed that trustor’s group identification exacerbated these effects.
review emergence terminology and theories that address the dynamic process by which a higher-level phenomenon
emerges from lower-level elements. Next, we review the extant theory and research on emergence
and convergence in organization science using an organizing framework that simultaneously considers the
content area of lower-level elements, the emergent factors, and the target of the emergent property. In addition
to organizing and bridging current literature on emergence and convergence, gaps of existing research and
new directions for future research, including compilation and divergence, are identified.