Since the 2016 US presidential elections, fake news and misinformation have been recognised as a ... more Since the 2016 US presidential elections, fake news and misinformation have been recognised as a major problem of the modern, connected world. However, this increased salience has been accompanied by an expansion in voices articulating different approaches towards the issue. This article presents an examination of the range of societal discourses of fake news advanced by four types of hegemonic societal actors: international organisations, states, civil society and large business interests, focusing on the following. First, how do existing discourses conceive of the nature of fake news and the societal objects it threatens? Next, what are the solutions proposed? Through an analysis of policy interventions and texts, this article presents a taxonomy of the current most salient understandings of fake news, showing that present conceptualisations of the issue can be categorised into three competing discourses: discourses constructing fake news as an existential threat, a political problem or a minor issue. The analysis highlights important variations in how different regimes conceptualise fake news, revealing how authoritarian governments have sought to construct fake news as a security threat in order to justify constraints on free speech. On the flipside, leaving fake news completely unregulated leads to conflict-of-interest issues and an accountability gulf implicating 'Big Tech'. This article calls for more analytical focus on the discourses of fake news, which constitutes a significant but under-examined factor in comprehending the long-term consequences of the problem of fake news. Policy Implications • Fake news is not a static, singular phenomenon, but one over which many important stakeholders in society compete against to define and propose solutions for. The solutions advanced by these groups have different societal consequences and often diverge radicallyfrom banning false information outright to completely leaving private technology companies to self-regulate.
This article sets out to explain national variation in the governance of fake news; it asks, unde... more This article sets out to explain national variation in the governance of fake news; it asks, under what conditions would governments pursue securitization in order to address the threat of fake news? Through a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis of 24 countries in Asia-Pacific, this article explores multicausal explanations behind why some countries have moved to securitize fake news-framing it as an existential threat and justifying the passing of laws that curtail civil libertieswhile others do not. The analysis yields two main findings. First, although prevailing political arguments emphasize the threat of fake news to society and national security as justification for the securitization of fake news, this condition is neither necessary nor sufficient in causally accounting for the decision to crackdown on fake news. Conversely, crackdowns on fake news occur more frequently in countries less affected by fake news. Second, the analysis provides a set of two distinct, theoretically and empirically relevant causal pathways explaining the decision to crack down on fake news; the first pathway shows how non-democratic states without media freedom and which are relatively less affected by fake news instrumentalize the issue to restrict freedom of speech further; the second pathway shows how non-democratic states experiencing economic growth and political turbulence with proximate elections attempt to restrict freedom of speech. The findings suggest that implementations of broad legislation may not be an optimal approach, given that they appear to be more motivated by political circumstances than by the objective resolution of the problem.
This article examines developments in Malaysia regarding ‘fake
news’, analyzing how state actors ... more This article examines developments in Malaysia regarding ‘fake news’, analyzing how state actors sought to securitise the issue - or construct it as a national security threat - to justify broad crackdowns. As a research focus, it asks: how has the previous administration under PM Najib Razak sought to crackdown on fake news? Why were the securitisation efforts resisted, leading to the repeal of the Anti-Fake News 2018 bill? Drawing on primary survey data and through a case study, this study finds that the securitising actors’ lack of legitimacy, low resonance of discourses employed, and the presence of a credible opposing narrative are important factors leading to securitisation failure. Interestingly, results show that although the threat of fake news had acquired a broad consensus, efforts to frame it as a threat lapsed because the actor’s legitimacy was in doubt. Empirically, this study sheds light on policymaking processes in Malaysia, a ‘flawed semidemocracy
The fake news crisis has raised questions about the role of state regulation in curbing misinform... more The fake news crisis has raised questions about the role of state regulation in curbing misinformation, as well as the responsibilities tech companies should shoulder. In engaging with debates on digital governance, this article has two key focuses: first, what are the problems associated with the lack of state regulations in the digital sphere-where technology companies have unprecedented control over online public discourses? Next, how can states ensure that online regulations are measured, and continue to respect important liberties? This essay argues that the lack of regulation over tech firms has led to arbitrary censorship, conflict of interest issues and a legitimacy gap, with adverse societal consequences. Next, through a case study of contemporary fake news responses advanced by the Thai government, it empirically examines concerns associated with state-led initiatives to regulate misinformation on social media. Overall, while advocating for increased regulation over the online sphere, this article argues that regulations which equate the concept of fake news to illegality are not optimal as they are likely to undercut societal liberties. Implementing robust transparency mechanisms over tech companies represents a valuable first step that should be undertaken before further attempts to advance coercive legislation establishing the state as the sole arbiter of truth are made.
Fake news has been recognised as a pressing issue by scholars, who have highlighted the destabili... more Fake news has been recognised as a pressing issue by scholars, who have highlighted the destabilising impact it portends in societies. Beyond an understanding of the empirical effects of fake news on democratic institutions that recent scholarship has shed light on, emergent research also points to the potential of fake news being weaponised as a discursive tool to achieve political ends. In that light, this study sets out to analyse the discourses of fake news as advanced by states. Results from a critical discourse analysis of articles relating to fake news (n = 450) from four countries-Cambodia, Malaysia, Singapore and Vietnam-reveal four key findings: first, fake news is being framed as an existential security issue that directly threatens foundational societal values. Second, fake news as an issue is constructed as a new and unprecedented contemporary problem, and compared on equal terms to other security threats such as terrorism, chemical attacks and cyberwarfare. Third, the threat of fake news is used to justify the passing of broad-reaching legislation and curbs on free speech that are construed as aligned with global democratic norms. Lastly, the term is used to facilitate unsubstantiated 'lying press' accusations against media outlets. Overall, this study suggests that fake news can be damaging to the quality of democracies not only as a result of its dissemination, but also through the discursive instrumentalisation of the term to curb civil liberties and justify crackdowns.
Employing securitization theory, this article critically evaluates political discourses in the Un... more Employing securitization theory, this article critically evaluates political discourses in the United States involving US President Donald Trump. It makes two main arguments: first, present political discourses against Trump can be understood as part of a concerted securitization process in which Trump’s presidency is constructed as a threat to US national security. The securitization of an issue gives credence to the need for emergency measures to resolve a purported threat; within this context, the process aims to justify measures including the emergency impeachment of the President. Next, using primary data gathered from an online questionnaire (n = 529) and secondary data from polling agencies, this article demonstrates that there had been popular resonance and acceptance of the securitization discourse, that sufficient institutional support for impeachment was generated and that there was low coherence of counter-narratives opposed to the securitization. This article highlights how securitization can be undertaken over a protracted span of time through both discourses and practices, and in concert by a slew of actors rather than being carried out by a single lead actor. Importantly, it suggests that analysing audience responses to an unfolding securitizing move can generate valuable insights about the securitization processes and its potential outcomes.
The events of Arab Spring that swept across the Middle East have altered the face of domestic pol... more The events of Arab Spring that swept across the Middle East have altered the face of domestic politics within Arab states, spurring a rise in Shia/Sunni sectarianism across the region. Yet, to view sectarianism as an inevitable outcome ignores the fact that both factions have lived together peacefully in the past. This article employs securitisation to interrogate the construction of Shi'ism as a societal threat in Saudi Arabia. It addresses two questions: first, what empirical insight can the framework provide regarding the religious securitisation of Shi’ism by Saudi Arabia? Next, what are the implications of the securitisation discourse on the Shi’a minority and the wider Saudi society? Theoretically, this article engages with contemporary debates concerning Eurocentric aspects of securitisation and the concept of religious securitisation. Empirically, it argues that the Saudi state has instrumentally securitised Shi'ism to curb the perceived threat from Iran. Crucially, it analyses how the securitisation discourse has justified institutionalised discrimination against the Shi’a minority, and shows how this has unleashed centrifugal trajectories that undermine societal stability. This has unfolded in an empirical cycle of violence, as Sunni citizens become normalised to violence against the Shi’a, spurring the minority to mount an increasingly violent campaign of resistance.
This article examines the rise in jihadi activity within North Africa in recent years and aims to... more This article examines the rise in jihadi activity within North Africa in recent years and aims to answer two fundamental questions: first, how have local and foreign jihadi groups capitalised on the unique domestic contexts in Tunisia and Egypt in the aftermath of the Arab Spring revolutions to advance their insurgencies? Next, what are the key factors conducive to extremism in both countries that have facilitated this? This study highlights the importance of contending with extremism with respect to the differentiated socio-historical, political and economic circumstances of each country. From a broader perspective, several trends common in the rise of extremism in both countries are identified. First, there is a tendency of extremism to consolidate in proportion to the amount of institutional void. Next, conditions of poverty often supply futile ground for the entrenchment of terrorism; in particular, the study highlights on how jihadi groups have made a concerted effort to damage the economic interests of each country. Finally, the presence of historical grievances provides a conducive environment for extremism. In light of the threat of cell dispersion following the recent defeats faced by ISIS in Syria and Iraq, an understanding of jihadi operations in North Africa becomes increasingly crucial.
While research has established the political impact of Europeanisation on candidate countries, th... more While research has established the political impact of Europeanisation on candidate countries, the impact of discursive Europeanisation on cultural issues such as LGBT norms remains understudied. This article pursues this agenda by exploring the impact of Europeanisation on Turkey's domestic discourse on LGBT issues-specifically, whether Europeanisation has influenced the media discourse of LGBT issues in Turkey. Turkey presents an interesting case as its largely conservative society is in contrast with the EU in which LGBT acceptance has gained unprecedented traction. A media content analysis comparing Turkish media reports from the year of 2005 and 2010 is used to test this thesis. The study discovers that prospective European integration has influenced the LGBT discourses of Turkey over the study period; while the majority of reports on LGBT issues continues to be negatively represented, results show an improvement over the study period. The changes effectuated were statistically significant and suggest that LGBT and possibly other cultural norms may not be as resistant to discursive Europeanisation. This study also highlights how regional integration continues to be an effective avenue for inducing normatively positive change.
Employing the securitisation theory advanced by the Copenhagen School, this article critically ev... more Employing the securitisation theory advanced by the Copenhagen School, this article critically evaluates the security discourses in Singapore regarding the issue of deliberate online falsehoods, or 'fake news'. It seeks to address two key questions: first, can the theory provide empirical insights illuminating the heightened political salience of the issue of fake news in the country? Second, how can this study contribute to the development and advance our understanding of the securitisation framework?
The securitisation of a political issue gives credence to the urgent need for emergency measures and the mobilisation of resources-and often by suspending due political process-to resolve a purported existential threat. In this article, I show that the securitisation of fake news by the Singapore government has allowed it to consolidate political power, increase regulatory oversight on social media and censor criticisms against the state ahead of the conduct of national elections. In addition, this study contributes to the discussion on the applicability of securitisation theory beyond a Western or Euro-centric political context. It shows that the acquiescence of the audience is vital for a successful securitisation move in an authoritarian regime just as much as it would in a democracy.
Since the 2016 US presidential elections, fake news and misinformation have been recognised as a ... more Since the 2016 US presidential elections, fake news and misinformation have been recognised as a major problem of the modern, connected world. However, this increased salience has been accompanied by an expansion in voices articulating different approaches towards the issue. This article presents an examination of the range of societal discourses of fake news advanced by four types of hegemonic societal actors: international organisations, states, civil society and large business interests, focusing on the following. First, how do existing discourses conceive of the nature of fake news and the societal objects it threatens? Next, what are the solutions proposed? Through an analysis of policy interventions and texts, this article presents a taxonomy of the current most salient understandings of fake news, showing that present conceptualisations of the issue can be categorised into three competing discourses: discourses constructing fake news as an existential threat, a political problem or a minor issue. The analysis highlights important variations in how different regimes conceptualise fake news, revealing how authoritarian governments have sought to construct fake news as a security threat in order to justify constraints on free speech. On the flipside, leaving fake news completely unregulated leads to conflict-of-interest issues and an accountability gulf implicating 'Big Tech'. This article calls for more analytical focus on the discourses of fake news, which constitutes a significant but under-examined factor in comprehending the long-term consequences of the problem of fake news. Policy Implications • Fake news is not a static, singular phenomenon, but one over which many important stakeholders in society compete against to define and propose solutions for. The solutions advanced by these groups have different societal consequences and often diverge radicallyfrom banning false information outright to completely leaving private technology companies to self-regulate.
This article sets out to explain national variation in the governance of fake news; it asks, unde... more This article sets out to explain national variation in the governance of fake news; it asks, under what conditions would governments pursue securitization in order to address the threat of fake news? Through a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis of 24 countries in Asia-Pacific, this article explores multicausal explanations behind why some countries have moved to securitize fake news-framing it as an existential threat and justifying the passing of laws that curtail civil libertieswhile others do not. The analysis yields two main findings. First, although prevailing political arguments emphasize the threat of fake news to society and national security as justification for the securitization of fake news, this condition is neither necessary nor sufficient in causally accounting for the decision to crackdown on fake news. Conversely, crackdowns on fake news occur more frequently in countries less affected by fake news. Second, the analysis provides a set of two distinct, theoretically and empirically relevant causal pathways explaining the decision to crack down on fake news; the first pathway shows how non-democratic states without media freedom and which are relatively less affected by fake news instrumentalize the issue to restrict freedom of speech further; the second pathway shows how non-democratic states experiencing economic growth and political turbulence with proximate elections attempt to restrict freedom of speech. The findings suggest that implementations of broad legislation may not be an optimal approach, given that they appear to be more motivated by political circumstances than by the objective resolution of the problem.
This article examines developments in Malaysia regarding ‘fake
news’, analyzing how state actors ... more This article examines developments in Malaysia regarding ‘fake news’, analyzing how state actors sought to securitise the issue - or construct it as a national security threat - to justify broad crackdowns. As a research focus, it asks: how has the previous administration under PM Najib Razak sought to crackdown on fake news? Why were the securitisation efforts resisted, leading to the repeal of the Anti-Fake News 2018 bill? Drawing on primary survey data and through a case study, this study finds that the securitising actors’ lack of legitimacy, low resonance of discourses employed, and the presence of a credible opposing narrative are important factors leading to securitisation failure. Interestingly, results show that although the threat of fake news had acquired a broad consensus, efforts to frame it as a threat lapsed because the actor’s legitimacy was in doubt. Empirically, this study sheds light on policymaking processes in Malaysia, a ‘flawed semidemocracy
The fake news crisis has raised questions about the role of state regulation in curbing misinform... more The fake news crisis has raised questions about the role of state regulation in curbing misinformation, as well as the responsibilities tech companies should shoulder. In engaging with debates on digital governance, this article has two key focuses: first, what are the problems associated with the lack of state regulations in the digital sphere-where technology companies have unprecedented control over online public discourses? Next, how can states ensure that online regulations are measured, and continue to respect important liberties? This essay argues that the lack of regulation over tech firms has led to arbitrary censorship, conflict of interest issues and a legitimacy gap, with adverse societal consequences. Next, through a case study of contemporary fake news responses advanced by the Thai government, it empirically examines concerns associated with state-led initiatives to regulate misinformation on social media. Overall, while advocating for increased regulation over the online sphere, this article argues that regulations which equate the concept of fake news to illegality are not optimal as they are likely to undercut societal liberties. Implementing robust transparency mechanisms over tech companies represents a valuable first step that should be undertaken before further attempts to advance coercive legislation establishing the state as the sole arbiter of truth are made.
Fake news has been recognised as a pressing issue by scholars, who have highlighted the destabili... more Fake news has been recognised as a pressing issue by scholars, who have highlighted the destabilising impact it portends in societies. Beyond an understanding of the empirical effects of fake news on democratic institutions that recent scholarship has shed light on, emergent research also points to the potential of fake news being weaponised as a discursive tool to achieve political ends. In that light, this study sets out to analyse the discourses of fake news as advanced by states. Results from a critical discourse analysis of articles relating to fake news (n = 450) from four countries-Cambodia, Malaysia, Singapore and Vietnam-reveal four key findings: first, fake news is being framed as an existential security issue that directly threatens foundational societal values. Second, fake news as an issue is constructed as a new and unprecedented contemporary problem, and compared on equal terms to other security threats such as terrorism, chemical attacks and cyberwarfare. Third, the threat of fake news is used to justify the passing of broad-reaching legislation and curbs on free speech that are construed as aligned with global democratic norms. Lastly, the term is used to facilitate unsubstantiated 'lying press' accusations against media outlets. Overall, this study suggests that fake news can be damaging to the quality of democracies not only as a result of its dissemination, but also through the discursive instrumentalisation of the term to curb civil liberties and justify crackdowns.
Employing securitization theory, this article critically evaluates political discourses in the Un... more Employing securitization theory, this article critically evaluates political discourses in the United States involving US President Donald Trump. It makes two main arguments: first, present political discourses against Trump can be understood as part of a concerted securitization process in which Trump’s presidency is constructed as a threat to US national security. The securitization of an issue gives credence to the need for emergency measures to resolve a purported threat; within this context, the process aims to justify measures including the emergency impeachment of the President. Next, using primary data gathered from an online questionnaire (n = 529) and secondary data from polling agencies, this article demonstrates that there had been popular resonance and acceptance of the securitization discourse, that sufficient institutional support for impeachment was generated and that there was low coherence of counter-narratives opposed to the securitization. This article highlights how securitization can be undertaken over a protracted span of time through both discourses and practices, and in concert by a slew of actors rather than being carried out by a single lead actor. Importantly, it suggests that analysing audience responses to an unfolding securitizing move can generate valuable insights about the securitization processes and its potential outcomes.
The events of Arab Spring that swept across the Middle East have altered the face of domestic pol... more The events of Arab Spring that swept across the Middle East have altered the face of domestic politics within Arab states, spurring a rise in Shia/Sunni sectarianism across the region. Yet, to view sectarianism as an inevitable outcome ignores the fact that both factions have lived together peacefully in the past. This article employs securitisation to interrogate the construction of Shi'ism as a societal threat in Saudi Arabia. It addresses two questions: first, what empirical insight can the framework provide regarding the religious securitisation of Shi’ism by Saudi Arabia? Next, what are the implications of the securitisation discourse on the Shi’a minority and the wider Saudi society? Theoretically, this article engages with contemporary debates concerning Eurocentric aspects of securitisation and the concept of religious securitisation. Empirically, it argues that the Saudi state has instrumentally securitised Shi'ism to curb the perceived threat from Iran. Crucially, it analyses how the securitisation discourse has justified institutionalised discrimination against the Shi’a minority, and shows how this has unleashed centrifugal trajectories that undermine societal stability. This has unfolded in an empirical cycle of violence, as Sunni citizens become normalised to violence against the Shi’a, spurring the minority to mount an increasingly violent campaign of resistance.
This article examines the rise in jihadi activity within North Africa in recent years and aims to... more This article examines the rise in jihadi activity within North Africa in recent years and aims to answer two fundamental questions: first, how have local and foreign jihadi groups capitalised on the unique domestic contexts in Tunisia and Egypt in the aftermath of the Arab Spring revolutions to advance their insurgencies? Next, what are the key factors conducive to extremism in both countries that have facilitated this? This study highlights the importance of contending with extremism with respect to the differentiated socio-historical, political and economic circumstances of each country. From a broader perspective, several trends common in the rise of extremism in both countries are identified. First, there is a tendency of extremism to consolidate in proportion to the amount of institutional void. Next, conditions of poverty often supply futile ground for the entrenchment of terrorism; in particular, the study highlights on how jihadi groups have made a concerted effort to damage the economic interests of each country. Finally, the presence of historical grievances provides a conducive environment for extremism. In light of the threat of cell dispersion following the recent defeats faced by ISIS in Syria and Iraq, an understanding of jihadi operations in North Africa becomes increasingly crucial.
While research has established the political impact of Europeanisation on candidate countries, th... more While research has established the political impact of Europeanisation on candidate countries, the impact of discursive Europeanisation on cultural issues such as LGBT norms remains understudied. This article pursues this agenda by exploring the impact of Europeanisation on Turkey's domestic discourse on LGBT issues-specifically, whether Europeanisation has influenced the media discourse of LGBT issues in Turkey. Turkey presents an interesting case as its largely conservative society is in contrast with the EU in which LGBT acceptance has gained unprecedented traction. A media content analysis comparing Turkish media reports from the year of 2005 and 2010 is used to test this thesis. The study discovers that prospective European integration has influenced the LGBT discourses of Turkey over the study period; while the majority of reports on LGBT issues continues to be negatively represented, results show an improvement over the study period. The changes effectuated were statistically significant and suggest that LGBT and possibly other cultural norms may not be as resistant to discursive Europeanisation. This study also highlights how regional integration continues to be an effective avenue for inducing normatively positive change.
Employing the securitisation theory advanced by the Copenhagen School, this article critically ev... more Employing the securitisation theory advanced by the Copenhagen School, this article critically evaluates the security discourses in Singapore regarding the issue of deliberate online falsehoods, or 'fake news'. It seeks to address two key questions: first, can the theory provide empirical insights illuminating the heightened political salience of the issue of fake news in the country? Second, how can this study contribute to the development and advance our understanding of the securitisation framework?
The securitisation of a political issue gives credence to the urgent need for emergency measures and the mobilisation of resources-and often by suspending due political process-to resolve a purported existential threat. In this article, I show that the securitisation of fake news by the Singapore government has allowed it to consolidate political power, increase regulatory oversight on social media and censor criticisms against the state ahead of the conduct of national elections. In addition, this study contributes to the discussion on the applicability of securitisation theory beyond a Western or Euro-centric political context. It shows that the acquiescence of the audience is vital for a successful securitisation move in an authoritarian regime just as much as it would in a democracy.
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news’, analyzing how state actors sought to securitise the issue -
or construct it as a national security threat - to justify broad
crackdowns. As a research focus, it asks: how has the previous
administration under PM Najib Razak sought to crackdown on
fake news? Why were the securitisation efforts resisted, leading to
the repeal of the Anti-Fake News 2018 bill? Drawing on primary
survey data and through a case study, this study finds that the
securitising actors’ lack of legitimacy, low resonance of discourses
employed, and the presence of a credible opposing narrative are
important factors leading to securitisation failure. Interestingly,
results show that although the threat of fake news had acquired
a broad consensus, efforts to frame it as a threat lapsed because
the actor’s legitimacy was in doubt. Empirically, this study sheds
light on policymaking processes in Malaysia, a ‘flawed semidemocracy
The securitisation of a political issue gives credence to the urgent need for emergency measures and the mobilisation of resources-and often by suspending due political process-to resolve a purported existential threat. In this article, I show that the securitisation of fake news by the Singapore government has allowed it to consolidate political power, increase regulatory oversight on social media and censor criticisms against the state ahead of the conduct of national elections. In addition, this study contributes to the discussion on the applicability of securitisation theory beyond a Western or Euro-centric political context. It shows that the acquiescence of the audience is vital for a successful securitisation move in an authoritarian regime just as much as it would in a democracy.
news’, analyzing how state actors sought to securitise the issue -
or construct it as a national security threat - to justify broad
crackdowns. As a research focus, it asks: how has the previous
administration under PM Najib Razak sought to crackdown on
fake news? Why were the securitisation efforts resisted, leading to
the repeal of the Anti-Fake News 2018 bill? Drawing on primary
survey data and through a case study, this study finds that the
securitising actors’ lack of legitimacy, low resonance of discourses
employed, and the presence of a credible opposing narrative are
important factors leading to securitisation failure. Interestingly,
results show that although the threat of fake news had acquired
a broad consensus, efforts to frame it as a threat lapsed because
the actor’s legitimacy was in doubt. Empirically, this study sheds
light on policymaking processes in Malaysia, a ‘flawed semidemocracy
The securitisation of a political issue gives credence to the urgent need for emergency measures and the mobilisation of resources-and often by suspending due political process-to resolve a purported existential threat. In this article, I show that the securitisation of fake news by the Singapore government has allowed it to consolidate political power, increase regulatory oversight on social media and censor criticisms against the state ahead of the conduct of national elections. In addition, this study contributes to the discussion on the applicability of securitisation theory beyond a Western or Euro-centric political context. It shows that the acquiescence of the audience is vital for a successful securitisation move in an authoritarian regime just as much as it would in a democracy.