PurposeThe proliferation of ChatGPT, as in many other digital technologies and social media, has ... more PurposeThe proliferation of ChatGPT, as in many other digital technologies and social media, has increasingly impacted many aspects of modern life, including second and foreign language education. This study, building on a common theoretical position of all these advances in Artificial intelligence (AI), seeks to establish a model for ChatGPT research on English language learning. It specifically explores the dimensions in which ChatGPT aids students in their English language learning.Design/methodology/approachThe study adopts grounded theory in collecting and analyzing data from 20 ResearchGater (RG) through a two-week RG discussion about ChatGPT uses in their language learning contexts. Data collected via the discussion was analyzed thematically.FindingsPreliminary findings show that ChatGPT can be used in developing learners' language skills; scaffolding the learning process by providing feedback to students on their language use and acting as partners in practicing language...
Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Language Sciences and Literature, 2022
Within the area of cultural discourse studies (CDSs), this article is presented to compare the la... more Within the area of cultural discourse studies (CDSs), this article is presented to compare the late modern and Islamic worldviews on language. In so doing, the researcher uses a comparative qualitative method to explore the worldviews on language, word meaning, text, and context with specific attention to the writings of Norman Fairclough and those of Mohammed Naqib al-Attas. The analysis reveals that both worldviews coincide in terms of basic and relational meanings of words. Some differences are revealed in terms of the worldviews on language, text, and context. What distinguishes al-Attas’s Islamic worldview is that the authentic sources of knowledge (the Quran and the verified Sunnah) in the Arabic language provide a scientific context for concept-formation. The study contributes to a model for translation at worldview levels. It recommends further research on translating alien key concepts that have been introduced into the languages of Muslim people.
During the outbreak of Covid-19, emergency remote teaching (ERT) appeared as a hot topic research... more During the outbreak of Covid-19, emergency remote teaching (ERT) appeared as a hot topic research area. However, ERT remains a general term that needs to be operationalized in specific contexts such as English language teaching (ELT) in the Arab league countries where the classroom challenges and reactions of Arab English language instructors are under-researched. Therefore, this study synthesized ELT with ERT to introduce emergency remote English language teaching (ERELT). It investigates the virtual classroom challenges and the suggested remedies that Arab English language instructors have met while delivering their emergency on-distance lectures. A qualitative research design was followed in which online discussion was conducted on ResearchGate. The data were built from the responses of 19 English language instructors in the Arab league countries. Using grounded theory, the analysis revealed two lines of challenges depending on whether these countries are low-tech or high-tech. In low-tech countries, due to the absence of technological infrastructure, ERELT did not take place. In high-tech countries, the challenges are twofold: technical and pedagogical. The study concludes that syllabus designers and English language lecturers need to incorporate virtual teaching and learning as part and parcel of traditional teaching and learning practices. In low tech countries, traditional media such as television and radio may offer alternative emergency solutions. This article contributes with a bottom-up model for ERELT to pave the way for future research.
This article introduces an approach to creative media literacy for world issues (WIs) such as Cov... more This article introduces an approach to creative media literacy for world issues (WIs) such as Covid-19. In so doing, the article integrates four positions on discourse and media as terrible facets of globalization in the context of critical discourse analysis (CDA). The objectivist position deals with WIs as neutral discourse shared among humanity and distributed through English as an international language and educational media. The ideologist position treats creative media literacy as relations of power between global and local identities in the form of competing discourses associated with WIs. The rhetorical position reveals the hidden strategies used in global media discourse and English as a global language. The social constructionist position provides three levels of analysis for creative media literacy among university students: textual analysis, discourse analysis, and critical discourse analysis. The article concludes with guidelines on how lecturers can implement this appr...
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary theoretical and methodological approach... more Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary theoretical and methodological approach with a range of conceptual and methodological perspectives on discourse and global journalism. Thus, concept definitions, data selection and data analysis become three vital methodological decision making areas. This methodological paper describes and explains an empirical research design that operationalizes four positions on discourse as a facet of globalization: discourse as objective fact, discourse as social practice, discourse as power relations and discourse as discursive legitimation strategies. Discourse is analysed as objective fact through thematic analysis of discourse beyond the sentence level. Discourse as social practice is revealed at three levels of analysis: text analysis, discourse analysis and critical discourse analysis. Discourse as power relations is operationalized between local identities and global identities manifested as competing legitimation 'social act...
This paper reports some findings on the development of critical intercultural awareness among Eng... more This paper reports some findings on the development of critical intercultural awareness among English-as-a-foreign-language students in the context of a critical reading enrichment course for students in the preparatory year at a Saudi university. The critical reading class aimed to increase levels of critical intercultural awareness among the participants when they decoded and encoded an intercultural text. A qualitative action research design was used. The teacher-researcher equipped the participants with tools from critical discourse analysis for analyzing intercultural texts. After that, they were asked to work on an assignment by reading a text about a dinner invitation and then writing creatively on that topic. The study data were collected from these reflective writings in the participants’ portfolios. The teacher-researcher also used tools of critical discourse analysis to analyze the collected data. It was found that the participants demonstrated a balanced intercultural aw...
BELT - Brazilian English Language Teaching Journal, 2019
In monocultural classes, Saudi English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students have to acquire not o... more In monocultural classes, Saudi English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students have to acquire not only linguistic competence but also to develop Intercultural Competence (IC) when they read and write in English. This article investigates IC scattered in EFL students’ baseline portfolios collected in an enrichment critical reading class at the Preparatory Year of Najran University. IC is operationalised as intercultural attitude, intercultural knowledge and intercultural skills evident as discourses in intercultural texts. The data comprises semi-structured interview and intercultural assignment, which is an encounter discourse to intercultural text. A qualitative empirical research design was used to analyze the data through Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) techniques. The findings indicate that IC is underdeveloped. Most of the participants represent negative attitude towards intercultural communication. They also lack appropriate intercultural knowledge and effective intercultural ...
This paper investigates the efficiency of using mobile technology in English as a Foreign Languag... more This paper investigates the efficiency of using mobile technology in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading classroom of 30 male students at Preparatory Year, Najran University. Specifically, the study aims to explore the role of this new integrated method in enhancing the EFL learners’ reading practices. Integrating Freebody and Luke’s (1990) four resources model of reading practices within Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL), a mix-method research design was used in this study. The reading class was allowed and encouraged to implement specific mobile features and applications. A pretest was employed to construct the baseline data. During the treatment, WhatsApp group, self-reflection journals, posttest, and semi-structured interviews were used. The findings revealed that using mobile WhatsApp, online and offline dictionaries, mobile camera, online resources, and memos remarkably improved the participants’ code breaking practices and text participation practices; text usi...
Traditional classrooms confine English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading to the textbook and th... more Traditional classrooms confine English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading to the textbook and the classroom setting, something that demotivates active reading. With the advent of mobile technology, however, such boundaries can be broken to include external reading materials where students could read and share anytime and anywhere. This paper investigates the role of mobile technology in enhancing Learner Autonomy (LA) in the EFL reading context among students in the Preparatory Year (PY) of Najran University in Saudi Arabia. A reading class of 30 students utilised mobile applications (WhatsApp and internet search engines such as Google) to access external reading materials and interact with their peers and teachers outside the classroom. Qualitative data collection underwent a number of procedures. The baseline data was constructed from the students’ portfolios, which reported the participants’ traditional reading practices and use of mobiles. Then, the participants were encouraged...
Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: Gulf Perspectives, 2022
PurposeStudents of mixed-ability learning together in one class is a challenge for all educators,... more PurposeStudents of mixed-ability learning together in one class is a challenge for all educators, especially in English as foreign language (EFL) contexts. Timed reading activity (TRA) is an activity that can help educators address the learning needs of students in such a context. The present study investigated the effectiveness of the TRA in enhancing EFL students' reading rate and reading comprehension as well as in making them aware of potentially wrong reading strategies that they may be using.Design/methodology/approachA classroom intervention was designed for a group of preparatory year (PY) students at a Saudi university. The study sample consisted of one intact class of 29 students. Data were collected from pre- and post-tests of students' reading rate and reading comprehension as well as progress charts. In addition, a questionnaire was used to identify the reading strategies used by the students.FindingsThe results showed that the TRA generally enhanced the reading...
Discourse-based approaches to EFL reading have shifted the students` passive role to become ‘text... more Discourse-based approaches to EFL reading have shifted the students` passive role to become ‘text resistant’. This paper examines the extent to which Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) enhances analytical reading practices in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading context among Preparatory Year students at Najran University. The paper operationalizes CDA levels of analysis (namely, text analysis, discourse analysis, and critical discourse analysis) in an EFL reading classroom. In this quasi-experimental design, a questionnaire and a test were used to collect data from a reading class before and after the interventional program. Prior to the treatment, the class was taught reading through traditional methods, whereas in the treatment stage, the class was conducted using CDA instruction. The data collected from both the questionnaire and the test were analyzed using the paired sample t-test. The results showed statistical significance in each analytical practice: text analysis (de...
Well-designed, Professional Development (PD) planning has become a dire need for effective Englis... more Well-designed, Professional Development (PD) planning has become a dire need for effective English Language Teaching (ELT) and learning at higher education. English as Foreign Language (EFL) faculty members at Preparatory Year of Najran University have to improve themselves to meet individual and institutional PD needs. A conceptual framework was developed for Continuing Academic Professional Development (CAPD). This paper aims to explore the needs of these faculty members on CAPD, and to identify the effective ways to implement such needs. The data was collected from the faculty members through a google form close and open questionnaire. While the close items were analyzed through SPSS 20, the open questions were analyzed through thematic analysis. The analysis reveals that the highest need is related to teaching and learning activities (M=3.90). Such need can be best implemented through workshops, short courses, webinars and emails. Research activities are also in high need (M=3....
In intercultural communication, human values need to be investigated as neutral discourse; where ... more In intercultural communication, human values need to be investigated as neutral discourse; where local and global identities compete to legitimate such neutral discourse. Human values can be explicitly or implicitly manifested in the discourse of proverbs. Proverbs are ‘common sense’ assumptions that construct culturally-biased and durative values. Like newspaper headlines, proverbs are part of argumentative rhetoric whose semantic and pragmatic functions are not only to attract readers but also to convince them. As a sub- journalistic genre in Yemen Times, the discourse of proverbs targeted worldwide audiences; it was produced by a non-local journalist and published in hardcopy and online between 2003 and 2010. This paper investigates human values in an intercultural text disseminated in global journalism; the discourse of proverbs of Yemen Times. The analytical tools of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) were employed to reveal the evident competing discourses associated with human...
Purpose Existing research has examined English as a foreign language (EFL) students’ attitudes to... more Purpose Existing research has examined English as a foreign language (EFL) students’ attitudes towards flipped learning. However, no study seems to have correlated students’ achievement and their attitudes towards flipped learning. Yemeni EFL students also face pronunciation problems and they lack technology-enhanced language learning. The flipped learning approach promotes active learning and increases students’ learning outcomes. This study aims to measure the achievement level and the attitudes of Yemeni EFL students towards flipped pronunciation classrooms. It also correlates between achievement and attitudes towards this new experience. Design/methodology/approach Using a correlational research design, quantitative and qualitative data were collected through a test, questionnaire and structured interview from an intact class of Yemeni EFL students at the College of Education in Socotra. Findings The one-sample t-test analysis shows that the respondents scored high in the achiev...
In Saudi higher education, assessment has shifted to incorporate intended learning outcomes rathe... more In Saudi higher education, assessment has shifted to incorporate intended learning outcomes rather than merely textbook content. Subsequently, faculty members unwillingly participate in high-stakes competitive and harmonized assessment in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) courses during the preparatory year (PY). These challenges emphasize the importance of needbased training for faculty members. Accordingly, this context-specific study scrutinized faculty members’ needs as well as the impact of a training program on engaging the participants and on fostering language assessment skills (LASs) among them. In so doing, an action research design used preand post-questionnaires and included a training portfolio to collect data from 31 faculty members. The study first identified those needs as instructional skills, design skills, and educational measurement skills. In the context of professional development, the researchers designed a training program based on those reported needs. Dur...
PurposeThe proliferation of ChatGPT, as in many other digital technologies and social media, has ... more PurposeThe proliferation of ChatGPT, as in many other digital technologies and social media, has increasingly impacted many aspects of modern life, including second and foreign language education. This study, building on a common theoretical position of all these advances in Artificial intelligence (AI), seeks to establish a model for ChatGPT research on English language learning. It specifically explores the dimensions in which ChatGPT aids students in their English language learning.Design/methodology/approachThe study adopts grounded theory in collecting and analyzing data from 20 ResearchGater (RG) through a two-week RG discussion about ChatGPT uses in their language learning contexts. Data collected via the discussion was analyzed thematically.FindingsPreliminary findings show that ChatGPT can be used in developing learners' language skills; scaffolding the learning process by providing feedback to students on their language use and acting as partners in practicing language...
Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Language Sciences and Literature, 2022
Within the area of cultural discourse studies (CDSs), this article is presented to compare the la... more Within the area of cultural discourse studies (CDSs), this article is presented to compare the late modern and Islamic worldviews on language. In so doing, the researcher uses a comparative qualitative method to explore the worldviews on language, word meaning, text, and context with specific attention to the writings of Norman Fairclough and those of Mohammed Naqib al-Attas. The analysis reveals that both worldviews coincide in terms of basic and relational meanings of words. Some differences are revealed in terms of the worldviews on language, text, and context. What distinguishes al-Attas’s Islamic worldview is that the authentic sources of knowledge (the Quran and the verified Sunnah) in the Arabic language provide a scientific context for concept-formation. The study contributes to a model for translation at worldview levels. It recommends further research on translating alien key concepts that have been introduced into the languages of Muslim people.
During the outbreak of Covid-19, emergency remote teaching (ERT) appeared as a hot topic research... more During the outbreak of Covid-19, emergency remote teaching (ERT) appeared as a hot topic research area. However, ERT remains a general term that needs to be operationalized in specific contexts such as English language teaching (ELT) in the Arab league countries where the classroom challenges and reactions of Arab English language instructors are under-researched. Therefore, this study synthesized ELT with ERT to introduce emergency remote English language teaching (ERELT). It investigates the virtual classroom challenges and the suggested remedies that Arab English language instructors have met while delivering their emergency on-distance lectures. A qualitative research design was followed in which online discussion was conducted on ResearchGate. The data were built from the responses of 19 English language instructors in the Arab league countries. Using grounded theory, the analysis revealed two lines of challenges depending on whether these countries are low-tech or high-tech. In low-tech countries, due to the absence of technological infrastructure, ERELT did not take place. In high-tech countries, the challenges are twofold: technical and pedagogical. The study concludes that syllabus designers and English language lecturers need to incorporate virtual teaching and learning as part and parcel of traditional teaching and learning practices. In low tech countries, traditional media such as television and radio may offer alternative emergency solutions. This article contributes with a bottom-up model for ERELT to pave the way for future research.
This article introduces an approach to creative media literacy for world issues (WIs) such as Cov... more This article introduces an approach to creative media literacy for world issues (WIs) such as Covid-19. In so doing, the article integrates four positions on discourse and media as terrible facets of globalization in the context of critical discourse analysis (CDA). The objectivist position deals with WIs as neutral discourse shared among humanity and distributed through English as an international language and educational media. The ideologist position treats creative media literacy as relations of power between global and local identities in the form of competing discourses associated with WIs. The rhetorical position reveals the hidden strategies used in global media discourse and English as a global language. The social constructionist position provides three levels of analysis for creative media literacy among university students: textual analysis, discourse analysis, and critical discourse analysis. The article concludes with guidelines on how lecturers can implement this appr...
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary theoretical and methodological approach... more Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary theoretical and methodological approach with a range of conceptual and methodological perspectives on discourse and global journalism. Thus, concept definitions, data selection and data analysis become three vital methodological decision making areas. This methodological paper describes and explains an empirical research design that operationalizes four positions on discourse as a facet of globalization: discourse as objective fact, discourse as social practice, discourse as power relations and discourse as discursive legitimation strategies. Discourse is analysed as objective fact through thematic analysis of discourse beyond the sentence level. Discourse as social practice is revealed at three levels of analysis: text analysis, discourse analysis and critical discourse analysis. Discourse as power relations is operationalized between local identities and global identities manifested as competing legitimation 'social act...
This paper reports some findings on the development of critical intercultural awareness among Eng... more This paper reports some findings on the development of critical intercultural awareness among English-as-a-foreign-language students in the context of a critical reading enrichment course for students in the preparatory year at a Saudi university. The critical reading class aimed to increase levels of critical intercultural awareness among the participants when they decoded and encoded an intercultural text. A qualitative action research design was used. The teacher-researcher equipped the participants with tools from critical discourse analysis for analyzing intercultural texts. After that, they were asked to work on an assignment by reading a text about a dinner invitation and then writing creatively on that topic. The study data were collected from these reflective writings in the participants’ portfolios. The teacher-researcher also used tools of critical discourse analysis to analyze the collected data. It was found that the participants demonstrated a balanced intercultural aw...
BELT - Brazilian English Language Teaching Journal, 2019
In monocultural classes, Saudi English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students have to acquire not o... more In monocultural classes, Saudi English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students have to acquire not only linguistic competence but also to develop Intercultural Competence (IC) when they read and write in English. This article investigates IC scattered in EFL students’ baseline portfolios collected in an enrichment critical reading class at the Preparatory Year of Najran University. IC is operationalised as intercultural attitude, intercultural knowledge and intercultural skills evident as discourses in intercultural texts. The data comprises semi-structured interview and intercultural assignment, which is an encounter discourse to intercultural text. A qualitative empirical research design was used to analyze the data through Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) techniques. The findings indicate that IC is underdeveloped. Most of the participants represent negative attitude towards intercultural communication. They also lack appropriate intercultural knowledge and effective intercultural ...
This paper investigates the efficiency of using mobile technology in English as a Foreign Languag... more This paper investigates the efficiency of using mobile technology in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading classroom of 30 male students at Preparatory Year, Najran University. Specifically, the study aims to explore the role of this new integrated method in enhancing the EFL learners’ reading practices. Integrating Freebody and Luke’s (1990) four resources model of reading practices within Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL), a mix-method research design was used in this study. The reading class was allowed and encouraged to implement specific mobile features and applications. A pretest was employed to construct the baseline data. During the treatment, WhatsApp group, self-reflection journals, posttest, and semi-structured interviews were used. The findings revealed that using mobile WhatsApp, online and offline dictionaries, mobile camera, online resources, and memos remarkably improved the participants’ code breaking practices and text participation practices; text usi...
Traditional classrooms confine English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading to the textbook and th... more Traditional classrooms confine English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading to the textbook and the classroom setting, something that demotivates active reading. With the advent of mobile technology, however, such boundaries can be broken to include external reading materials where students could read and share anytime and anywhere. This paper investigates the role of mobile technology in enhancing Learner Autonomy (LA) in the EFL reading context among students in the Preparatory Year (PY) of Najran University in Saudi Arabia. A reading class of 30 students utilised mobile applications (WhatsApp and internet search engines such as Google) to access external reading materials and interact with their peers and teachers outside the classroom. Qualitative data collection underwent a number of procedures. The baseline data was constructed from the students’ portfolios, which reported the participants’ traditional reading practices and use of mobiles. Then, the participants were encouraged...
Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: Gulf Perspectives, 2022
PurposeStudents of mixed-ability learning together in one class is a challenge for all educators,... more PurposeStudents of mixed-ability learning together in one class is a challenge for all educators, especially in English as foreign language (EFL) contexts. Timed reading activity (TRA) is an activity that can help educators address the learning needs of students in such a context. The present study investigated the effectiveness of the TRA in enhancing EFL students' reading rate and reading comprehension as well as in making them aware of potentially wrong reading strategies that they may be using.Design/methodology/approachA classroom intervention was designed for a group of preparatory year (PY) students at a Saudi university. The study sample consisted of one intact class of 29 students. Data were collected from pre- and post-tests of students' reading rate and reading comprehension as well as progress charts. In addition, a questionnaire was used to identify the reading strategies used by the students.FindingsThe results showed that the TRA generally enhanced the reading...
Discourse-based approaches to EFL reading have shifted the students` passive role to become ‘text... more Discourse-based approaches to EFL reading have shifted the students` passive role to become ‘text resistant’. This paper examines the extent to which Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) enhances analytical reading practices in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading context among Preparatory Year students at Najran University. The paper operationalizes CDA levels of analysis (namely, text analysis, discourse analysis, and critical discourse analysis) in an EFL reading classroom. In this quasi-experimental design, a questionnaire and a test were used to collect data from a reading class before and after the interventional program. Prior to the treatment, the class was taught reading through traditional methods, whereas in the treatment stage, the class was conducted using CDA instruction. The data collected from both the questionnaire and the test were analyzed using the paired sample t-test. The results showed statistical significance in each analytical practice: text analysis (de...
Well-designed, Professional Development (PD) planning has become a dire need for effective Englis... more Well-designed, Professional Development (PD) planning has become a dire need for effective English Language Teaching (ELT) and learning at higher education. English as Foreign Language (EFL) faculty members at Preparatory Year of Najran University have to improve themselves to meet individual and institutional PD needs. A conceptual framework was developed for Continuing Academic Professional Development (CAPD). This paper aims to explore the needs of these faculty members on CAPD, and to identify the effective ways to implement such needs. The data was collected from the faculty members through a google form close and open questionnaire. While the close items were analyzed through SPSS 20, the open questions were analyzed through thematic analysis. The analysis reveals that the highest need is related to teaching and learning activities (M=3.90). Such need can be best implemented through workshops, short courses, webinars and emails. Research activities are also in high need (M=3....
In intercultural communication, human values need to be investigated as neutral discourse; where ... more In intercultural communication, human values need to be investigated as neutral discourse; where local and global identities compete to legitimate such neutral discourse. Human values can be explicitly or implicitly manifested in the discourse of proverbs. Proverbs are ‘common sense’ assumptions that construct culturally-biased and durative values. Like newspaper headlines, proverbs are part of argumentative rhetoric whose semantic and pragmatic functions are not only to attract readers but also to convince them. As a sub- journalistic genre in Yemen Times, the discourse of proverbs targeted worldwide audiences; it was produced by a non-local journalist and published in hardcopy and online between 2003 and 2010. This paper investigates human values in an intercultural text disseminated in global journalism; the discourse of proverbs of Yemen Times. The analytical tools of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) were employed to reveal the evident competing discourses associated with human...
Purpose Existing research has examined English as a foreign language (EFL) students’ attitudes to... more Purpose Existing research has examined English as a foreign language (EFL) students’ attitudes towards flipped learning. However, no study seems to have correlated students’ achievement and their attitudes towards flipped learning. Yemeni EFL students also face pronunciation problems and they lack technology-enhanced language learning. The flipped learning approach promotes active learning and increases students’ learning outcomes. This study aims to measure the achievement level and the attitudes of Yemeni EFL students towards flipped pronunciation classrooms. It also correlates between achievement and attitudes towards this new experience. Design/methodology/approach Using a correlational research design, quantitative and qualitative data were collected through a test, questionnaire and structured interview from an intact class of Yemeni EFL students at the College of Education in Socotra. Findings The one-sample t-test analysis shows that the respondents scored high in the achiev...
In Saudi higher education, assessment has shifted to incorporate intended learning outcomes rathe... more In Saudi higher education, assessment has shifted to incorporate intended learning outcomes rather than merely textbook content. Subsequently, faculty members unwillingly participate in high-stakes competitive and harmonized assessment in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) courses during the preparatory year (PY). These challenges emphasize the importance of needbased training for faculty members. Accordingly, this context-specific study scrutinized faculty members’ needs as well as the impact of a training program on engaging the participants and on fostering language assessment skills (LASs) among them. In so doing, an action research design used preand post-questionnaires and included a training portfolio to collect data from 31 faculty members. The study first identified those needs as instructional skills, design skills, and educational measurement skills. In the context of professional development, the researchers designed a training program based on those reported needs. Dur...
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