Publisher Summary This chapter highlights the rapid growth of computers technologies and their im... more Publisher Summary This chapter highlights the rapid growth of computers technologies and their impact on employment. Technological change primarily means automation, and automation in the office means computers. The relationship of computers and automation to employment is a part of the more general relation of technological change to employment. The most obvious effect is that increases in productivity as a result of technology can eliminate jobs. Technology affects the individual worker both in his attitude toward work and in the nature and amount of the work done by the individual. The structure of the entire economy and the organizational structure of individual firms are affected by such changes. The commonly accepted index of technological change is productivity or output per man-hour, measured in terms of some unit product or service. Despite the high rate of technological change in the twentieth century and the resulting gains in productivity, the total labor force of the industrialized nations has increased throughout the period. Increased consumer demands have kept pace with productivity increases, and employment in the aggregate sense has stayed relatively stable. When indirect labor is considered, the skill levels required within various industries have both increased and decreased. While alienation is still present, the introduction of automation and computing may have improved work attitudes when compared to the effects of earlier mechanization. But it is not possible to be complacent about the effects of computers and automation on employment.
This chapter focuses on capabilities and limitations of a computer. The identification of artific... more This chapter focuses on capabilities and limitations of a computer. The identification of artificial intelligence with mathematics may represent a view associated with the emotions and instincts that are found in the animal world and the human, but intelligence is logical and, hence, mathematical. However, the themes of artificial intelligence is to try to imbue programs with learning capabilities, that is, have the programs use and generalize upon past experience. In computer programs, this learning capability is usually limited to simple success or failure reinforcement schemes. Another substantial effort of artificial intelligence in a well-defined environment is the application of computerized mechanical theorem proving. The ability to learn natural language is the distinguishing characteristic of human intelligence, from which other abilities follow. The fact that present-day computers have limited capabilities for playing games, solving problems, and dealing with languages is not in itself a guide to predicting their eventual capabilities. Despite the converging efforts by scientists from many disciplines, it is turning out to be enormously difficult to understand the way in which memory, learning, recognition, and conceptualization take place in the brain.
This chapter highlights the issue of distribution of computer products and service. The computing... more This chapter highlights the issue of distribution of computer products and service. The computing industry is increasingly complex, and there are many aspects to the production and distribution of computer hardware and software. However, the effects on social issues involving computers are less clear. Certain industries such as communication, where the advantages of scale are particularly important, are regarded as natural monopolies, and they are not subjected to the restrictions placed on monopolies. Instead they are usually subject to regulations that require them to offer service to everyone willing to pay for it, which limit the rates for services and the profits, and which prevent the company from using its monopoly as a competitive advantage in other situations. In many countries, communications are operated by the state, while in others, a few companies, the common carriers, are given monopolies or near-monopolies, often so as to allow each to provide specialized services such as telephone, telegraph, radio broadcasting, and television transmission.
This chapter focuses on the effects of computer on the relationships between different components... more This chapter focuses on the effects of computer on the relationships between different components of an organization, between components at different levels, and between a component and the individuals within it. One factor that enters into the influence of the computer is whether the computing facilities are centralized or decentralized. The increasing value of information as a commodity brings with it the potential to change the bases of power and create new ones. The systematic and purposeful acquisition of information and its systematic application rather than science or technology is emerging as the new foundations for work, productivity, and effort throughout the world. In computing, the general economic rule that favors large production systems over small ones, based on the economy of scale, has come to be known as Grosch's law. This states that the effectiveness of a computing system, as measured by throughput or speed, is proportional to the square of the cost.
This chapter reviews computer files, data banks, and information systems. It focuses on the chara... more This chapter reviews computer files, data banks, and information systems. It focuses on the characteristics of the files used in routine billing, record-keeping, integrated files, and management information systems. The components of a file are its records, the fields, and the keys. The number of components and the ways in which they are interrelated are determined by the requirements of the system for which the file is maintained. In most files, the record size lies between 100 and 1000 characters. Files can also be regarded as static or volatile according to the permanence of the records. The reliability imposed on the file processing by the system is another characteristic that greatly affects the type of processing, particularly with respect to duplication of processors, cost, and so on. The Data Bank and Information System of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, D. C., consists of a large number of time series on statistics related to employment originating from the monthly current population surveys conducted by the Census Bureau. It contains data on individuals such as employment status and duration, occupation, industry, sex, age, color, marital status, education, and household relationship.
This chapter discusses computer systems, models, and simulations in the application of variety of... more This chapter discusses computer systems, models, and simulations in the application of variety of planning techniques. Many systems under study today are large to such an extent and have so many components that their behavior cannot be calculated directly from physical or statistical principles. If improvements are proposed in a system that is difficult or highly undesirable to experiment with, to evaluate the proposals, a computer model may be constructed and simulations can be carried out on it. Different kinds of models can be used to aid in systems analysis and design. In systems analysis, Churchman (1968) has described five basic aspects of a system, namely, the total system objectives, the environment, the components, the resources, and the management. However, there will be external variables and parameters that describe the environment and internal parameters that are associated with the components.
This chapter discusses the problems and issues associated with computers. The questions raised by... more This chapter discusses the problems and issues associated with computers. The questions raised by the presence of computers range from technical problems, which can be posed rigorously and solved mathematically or experimentally, through social issues, which can only be resolved, if at all, after there is agreement about goals, to philosophical probings, whose answers are essentially discussions of the meanings of the terms being used. An indication of the number and range of problems associated with computers can be given by attempting to classify the kinds of problems that arise. The areas that designate the types are shown as overlapping to indicate that the subject matter overlaps and to convey the fact that the answers to a problem will depend on the context in which it is raised. The issues involving computer subjects are so broad, and in some cases changing so rapidly, that it is not possible to consider them all in the same detail.
This chapter reviews computer information systems and their privacy. The concept of privacy is st... more This chapter reviews computer information systems and their privacy. The concept of privacy is strongly dependent on the cultural and political context, and changes with time. Privacy, in one form or another, is basic to human relations. The concern about the ways in which modern technology affects privacy centers on the way information is gathered and also on the unsatisfactory practices for verifying, maintaining security on, and restricting the flow of information. Computers are primarily involved in these latter functions, but in examining the relation between computers and privacy, it is desirable to look at information gathering first, partly as background, and also because computers are often involved in the subsequent analysis. Devices designed for surveillance, wiretapping, and electronic eaves-dropping have been by far the most difficult to cope with in the matter of privacy. Computerized banking systems are just coming into use, and it is likely that they will grow and become general. It is significant that the Data Surveillance Bill is designed to deal with a specific type of damage, namely, that arising out of computerized credit reporting.
Publisher Summary This chapter highlights the rapid growth of computers technologies and their im... more Publisher Summary This chapter highlights the rapid growth of computers technologies and their impact on employment. Technological change primarily means automation, and automation in the office means computers. The relationship of computers and automation to employment is a part of the more general relation of technological change to employment. The most obvious effect is that increases in productivity as a result of technology can eliminate jobs. Technology affects the individual worker both in his attitude toward work and in the nature and amount of the work done by the individual. The structure of the entire economy and the organizational structure of individual firms are affected by such changes. The commonly accepted index of technological change is productivity or output per man-hour, measured in terms of some unit product or service. Despite the high rate of technological change in the twentieth century and the resulting gains in productivity, the total labor force of the industrialized nations has increased throughout the period. Increased consumer demands have kept pace with productivity increases, and employment in the aggregate sense has stayed relatively stable. When indirect labor is considered, the skill levels required within various industries have both increased and decreased. While alienation is still present, the introduction of automation and computing may have improved work attitudes when compared to the effects of earlier mechanization. But it is not possible to be complacent about the effects of computers and automation on employment.
This chapter focuses on capabilities and limitations of a computer. The identification of artific... more This chapter focuses on capabilities and limitations of a computer. The identification of artificial intelligence with mathematics may represent a view associated with the emotions and instincts that are found in the animal world and the human, but intelligence is logical and, hence, mathematical. However, the themes of artificial intelligence is to try to imbue programs with learning capabilities, that is, have the programs use and generalize upon past experience. In computer programs, this learning capability is usually limited to simple success or failure reinforcement schemes. Another substantial effort of artificial intelligence in a well-defined environment is the application of computerized mechanical theorem proving. The ability to learn natural language is the distinguishing characteristic of human intelligence, from which other abilities follow. The fact that present-day computers have limited capabilities for playing games, solving problems, and dealing with languages is not in itself a guide to predicting their eventual capabilities. Despite the converging efforts by scientists from many disciplines, it is turning out to be enormously difficult to understand the way in which memory, learning, recognition, and conceptualization take place in the brain.
This chapter highlights the issue of distribution of computer products and service. The computing... more This chapter highlights the issue of distribution of computer products and service. The computing industry is increasingly complex, and there are many aspects to the production and distribution of computer hardware and software. However, the effects on social issues involving computers are less clear. Certain industries such as communication, where the advantages of scale are particularly important, are regarded as natural monopolies, and they are not subjected to the restrictions placed on monopolies. Instead they are usually subject to regulations that require them to offer service to everyone willing to pay for it, which limit the rates for services and the profits, and which prevent the company from using its monopoly as a competitive advantage in other situations. In many countries, communications are operated by the state, while in others, a few companies, the common carriers, are given monopolies or near-monopolies, often so as to allow each to provide specialized services such as telephone, telegraph, radio broadcasting, and television transmission.
This chapter focuses on the effects of computer on the relationships between different components... more This chapter focuses on the effects of computer on the relationships between different components of an organization, between components at different levels, and between a component and the individuals within it. One factor that enters into the influence of the computer is whether the computing facilities are centralized or decentralized. The increasing value of information as a commodity brings with it the potential to change the bases of power and create new ones. The systematic and purposeful acquisition of information and its systematic application rather than science or technology is emerging as the new foundations for work, productivity, and effort throughout the world. In computing, the general economic rule that favors large production systems over small ones, based on the economy of scale, has come to be known as Grosch's law. This states that the effectiveness of a computing system, as measured by throughput or speed, is proportional to the square of the cost.
This chapter reviews computer files, data banks, and information systems. It focuses on the chara... more This chapter reviews computer files, data banks, and information systems. It focuses on the characteristics of the files used in routine billing, record-keeping, integrated files, and management information systems. The components of a file are its records, the fields, and the keys. The number of components and the ways in which they are interrelated are determined by the requirements of the system for which the file is maintained. In most files, the record size lies between 100 and 1000 characters. Files can also be regarded as static or volatile according to the permanence of the records. The reliability imposed on the file processing by the system is another characteristic that greatly affects the type of processing, particularly with respect to duplication of processors, cost, and so on. The Data Bank and Information System of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, D. C., consists of a large number of time series on statistics related to employment originating from the monthly current population surveys conducted by the Census Bureau. It contains data on individuals such as employment status and duration, occupation, industry, sex, age, color, marital status, education, and household relationship.
This chapter discusses computer systems, models, and simulations in the application of variety of... more This chapter discusses computer systems, models, and simulations in the application of variety of planning techniques. Many systems under study today are large to such an extent and have so many components that their behavior cannot be calculated directly from physical or statistical principles. If improvements are proposed in a system that is difficult or highly undesirable to experiment with, to evaluate the proposals, a computer model may be constructed and simulations can be carried out on it. Different kinds of models can be used to aid in systems analysis and design. In systems analysis, Churchman (1968) has described five basic aspects of a system, namely, the total system objectives, the environment, the components, the resources, and the management. However, there will be external variables and parameters that describe the environment and internal parameters that are associated with the components.
This chapter discusses the problems and issues associated with computers. The questions raised by... more This chapter discusses the problems and issues associated with computers. The questions raised by the presence of computers range from technical problems, which can be posed rigorously and solved mathematically or experimentally, through social issues, which can only be resolved, if at all, after there is agreement about goals, to philosophical probings, whose answers are essentially discussions of the meanings of the terms being used. An indication of the number and range of problems associated with computers can be given by attempting to classify the kinds of problems that arise. The areas that designate the types are shown as overlapping to indicate that the subject matter overlaps and to convey the fact that the answers to a problem will depend on the context in which it is raised. The issues involving computer subjects are so broad, and in some cases changing so rapidly, that it is not possible to consider them all in the same detail.
This chapter reviews computer information systems and their privacy. The concept of privacy is st... more This chapter reviews computer information systems and their privacy. The concept of privacy is strongly dependent on the cultural and political context, and changes with time. Privacy, in one form or another, is basic to human relations. The concern about the ways in which modern technology affects privacy centers on the way information is gathered and also on the unsatisfactory practices for verifying, maintaining security on, and restricting the flow of information. Computers are primarily involved in these latter functions, but in examining the relation between computers and privacy, it is desirable to look at information gathering first, partly as background, and also because computers are often involved in the subsequent analysis. Devices designed for surveillance, wiretapping, and electronic eaves-dropping have been by far the most difficult to cope with in the matter of privacy. Computerized banking systems are just coming into use, and it is likely that they will grow and become general. It is significant that the Data Surveillance Bill is designed to deal with a specific type of damage, namely, that arising out of computerized credit reporting.
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