The penba hu is a vessel of unique appearance first produced in the 17th century. Much of its ori... more The penba hu is a vessel of unique appearance first produced in the 17th century. Much of its origins are shrouded in mystery and this thesis aims to uncover its various functions and significance as a ritual object. Originally cast from metal, silver and gilt copper penba hu from the Tibetan plateaus have been found. The vessel likely found its way to the Qing Empire as a diplomatic gift and was reproduced during the Qianlong reign in its altered porcelain form. The role of the penba hu in ablution rituals changed when the porcelain penba hu was produced without an aspergil, however, it is still used for initiation rituals. Here, the lama prays to a particular deity, inviting it into the penba hu. This act of calling the deity is assisted by the makara, which facilitates the channelling of the gods. Pairing of penba hu is noted to apply to both porcelain and metal variants. Coloured pairs of porcelain penba hu support this theory and textual evidence points to the pairs serving different functions within the initiation ritual. The kendi is also used in conjunction with the penba hu in rituals within the Yonghegong temple. It is difficult to determine the material of the penba hu from the evidence available. Conflicting with the idea of the two vessels functioning together is the hypothesis that the kendi is a preceding version of the kendi. Studying the change over time in rituals involving the Avalokitesvara deity suggests that the introduction of the penba hu phased out the use of the kendi. The importance of the penba hu is highlighted by initiation rituals using the vajra and its appearance in thangka, resting next to other critical ritual objects. Extensive use of the penba hu with these objects points to its significance in Tibetan Buddhist rituals. Based on the gathered evidence, it is conceivable to argue that it is as important is as the vajra. Knowledge of the origins and functions of the vessel is still far from complete and this thesis aims to be a catalyst for more research to be conducted on this subject matter.
A parametric study on a 2D rectangular nozzle is numerically simulated using ANSYS Fluent. Turbul... more A parametric study on a 2D rectangular nozzle is numerically simulated using ANSYS Fluent. Turbulent model of RNG K-ε is used with a UDF turbulent viscosity treatment. The Schnerr and Sauer Model is used to model the evaporation and condensation of the cavitation behaviour. Round, sharp, and chamfered upstream corner is analysed to see their affect on the cavitation with r/D value of 1/10 for round and chamfered. The round and chamfered is found to reduce the cavitation length from the outlet to about 1.5mm down the upstream corner. Two tapered nozzles of K factor 1.5 and 20 are analysed and found the K factor of 1.5 severely reduced the cavity formed and when K = 20, the cavitation is completely reduced. Bubble number density is varied by a magnitude of 3 higher and lower. The lower change did not produce any significant changes whereas the higher one produced a smaller cavitation bubble that is seen to be more unstructured. Increasing the bubble number density did not see the increase of the mass transfer rate as expected.
The penba hu is a vessel of unique appearance first produced in the 17th century. Much of its ori... more The penba hu is a vessel of unique appearance first produced in the 17th century. Much of its origins are shrouded in mystery and this thesis aims to uncover its various functions and significance as a ritual object. Originally cast from metal, silver and gilt copper penba hu from the Tibetan plateaus have been found. The vessel likely found its way to the Qing Empire as a diplomatic gift and was reproduced during the Qianlong reign in its altered porcelain form. The role of the penba hu in ablution rituals changed when the porcelain penba hu was produced without an aspergil, however, it is still used for initiation rituals. Here, the lama prays to a particular deity, inviting it into the penba hu. This act of calling the deity is assisted by the makara, which facilitates the channelling of the gods. Pairing of penba hu is noted to apply to both porcelain and metal variants. Coloured pairs of porcelain penba hu support this theory and textual evidence points to the pairs serving different functions within the initiation ritual. The kendi is also used in conjunction with the penba hu in rituals within the Yonghegong temple. It is difficult to determine the material of the penba hu from the evidence available. Conflicting with the idea of the two vessels functioning together is the hypothesis that the kendi is a preceding version of the kendi. Studying the change over time in rituals involving the Avalokitesvara deity suggests that the introduction of the penba hu phased out the use of the kendi. The importance of the penba hu is highlighted by initiation rituals using the vajra and its appearance in thangka, resting next to other critical ritual objects. Extensive use of the penba hu with these objects points to its significance in Tibetan Buddhist rituals. Based on the gathered evidence, it is conceivable to argue that it is as important is as the vajra. Knowledge of the origins and functions of the vessel is still far from complete and this thesis aims to be a catalyst for more research to be conducted on this subject matter.
A parametric study on a 2D rectangular nozzle is numerically simulated using ANSYS Fluent. Turbul... more A parametric study on a 2D rectangular nozzle is numerically simulated using ANSYS Fluent. Turbulent model of RNG K-ε is used with a UDF turbulent viscosity treatment. The Schnerr and Sauer Model is used to model the evaporation and condensation of the cavitation behaviour. Round, sharp, and chamfered upstream corner is analysed to see their affect on the cavitation with r/D value of 1/10 for round and chamfered. The round and chamfered is found to reduce the cavitation length from the outlet to about 1.5mm down the upstream corner. Two tapered nozzles of K factor 1.5 and 20 are analysed and found the K factor of 1.5 severely reduced the cavity formed and when K = 20, the cavitation is completely reduced. Bubble number density is varied by a magnitude of 3 higher and lower. The lower change did not produce any significant changes whereas the higher one produced a smaller cavitation bubble that is seen to be more unstructured. Increasing the bubble number density did not see the increase of the mass transfer rate as expected.
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their affect on the cavitation with r/D value of 1/10 for round and chamfered. The round and chamfered is found to reduce the cavitation length from the outlet to about 1.5mm down the upstream corner. Two tapered nozzles of K factor 1.5 and 20 are analysed and found the K factor of 1.5 severely reduced the cavity formed and when K = 20, the cavitation is completely reduced. Bubble number density is varied by a magnitude of 3 higher and lower. The lower change did not produce any significant changes whereas the higher one produced a smaller cavitation bubble that is seen to be more unstructured. Increasing the bubble number density did not see the increase of the mass transfer rate as expected.
their affect on the cavitation with r/D value of 1/10 for round and chamfered. The round and chamfered is found to reduce the cavitation length from the outlet to about 1.5mm down the upstream corner. Two tapered nozzles of K factor 1.5 and 20 are analysed and found the K factor of 1.5 severely reduced the cavity formed and when K = 20, the cavitation is completely reduced. Bubble number density is varied by a magnitude of 3 higher and lower. The lower change did not produce any significant changes whereas the higher one produced a smaller cavitation bubble that is seen to be more unstructured. Increasing the bubble number density did not see the increase of the mass transfer rate as expected.