Although play occurs in a wide variety of animals, models of the origins of play behavior are lac... more Although play occurs in a wide variety of animals, models of the origins of play behavior are lacking. We propose a novel computational model exploring the evolution of non-social frivolous play. Asexually reproducing semelparous animals can either rest or forage. Foraging occurs when an organism is below an energy threshold. Success is determined by the combination of skill and availability of resources, which declines over time but replenishes for each generation. Play was introduced as a mutant strategy: a frivolous activity that uses energy and increases the probability of dying over resting with no direct fitness benefit. Simulations show that play behavior becomes fixed in the population and the time spent playing is maintained at a low rate in spite of its costly nature. When play behavior is functional by increasing foraging ability, it evolves quickly and the time individuals spend playing increases, but eventually the population of players collapses and play disappears. We...
What is the nature of comparative psychology and how does or should it relate to evolutionary psy... more What is the nature of comparative psychology and how does or should it relate to evolutionary psychology? This is a time of reassessment of both fields and this article reviews the history of comparative psychology and its relationships with evolutionary psychology, ethology, and other approaches to behavior from the perspective of a former editor of the Journal of Comparative Psychology who has spent many decades engaged in research in animal behavior. Special attention is given to a reassessment of comparative psychology that was carried out in 1987. The various tensions and orientations that seem endemic to comparative psychology may, in fact, be both a strength and weakness as comparative psychology and evolutionary approaches to human psychology return to issues prominent in the late 19thCentury, when both fields were just becoming established.
Contextual flexibility in prey restraint behaviour has been documented in advanced snakes (Colubr... more Contextual flexibility in prey restraint behaviour has been documented in advanced snakes (Colubroidea), but the degree of flexibility for earlier snake lineages has been largely unstudied. We document the prey restraint behaviour of five snake species belonging to three early macrostomate lineages: Loxocemidae, Erycinae and Boidae. Species from these lineages were chosen for this study because they utilize similar prey resources but exhibit different ecological habits that may have important consequences on prey restraint behaviour. Snakes (n = 27) were studied in a systematic experimental design assessing the effects of mouse size (small and large) and status (live and dead) across a total of 216 feeding trials. Loxocemus and Erycine snakes were highly flexible in their prey restraint behaviour patterns and these varied across prey category. Individuals of Boa constrictor exhibited very little contextual flexibility in feeding behaviour, confirming earlier reports. Flexibility in ...
There has been little quantitative research on the reactivity of non‐human species to either an o... more There has been little quantitative research on the reactivity of non‐human species to either an observer or to the presence of humans in general. This study describes the responses of black bears (Ursus americanus) to the presence of humans. Two pairs (male‐female) and (female‐female) of same‐aged captive black bears kept at separate locations were observed in 60‐min sessions with their behavior scanned every 30 s. 146 h of systematic observation were completed over a 30‐month period.Data for each session were collapsed into 30 two‐min blocks and linear regression analysis was performed on the rates of various behavior patterns. At a relatively remote, undisturbed location rates of many behavior patterns and groupings by activity level were highly correlated with time period within the 60‐min session. Behaviors that indicated resting or “relaxed” behavior increased from beginning to end of a session while behaviors requiring more energy decreased. Such large changes in rates of some...
Denning behavior has long remained the least observed aspect of bear behavior. During 2010–2013, ... more Denning behavior has long remained the least observed aspect of bear behavior. During 2010–2013, we used webcams, microphones, the internet, and 14,602 h of archived video to document the denning behaviors of two adult wild black bears (Ursus americanus) as they gave birth and cared for four litters through six winters in northeastern Minnesota. Observations included types of dens, labor, pre-parturient genital swelling, birthing positions, post-partum vocalizations, mothers removing amniotic tissues and warming newborn cubs in sub-freezing temperatures, frequency of nursing, cubs establishing nipple order, yearlings suckling, the ingestion of snow and icicles, the ingestion of foot pads, urination and defecation in latrine areas, toilet-licking, eye opening, reciprocal tongue-licking, play, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and possible dreaming, and reactions to wildlife intruders. The use of this new method for observing natural bear dens allowed the identification of many behaviors...
Although play occurs in a wide variety of animals, models of the origins of play behavior are lac... more Although play occurs in a wide variety of animals, models of the origins of play behavior are lacking. We propose a novel computational model exploring the evolution of non-social frivolous play. Asexually reproducing semelparous animals can either rest or forage. Foraging occurs when an organism is below an energy threshold. Success is determined by the combination of skill and availability of resources, which declines over time but replenishes for each generation. Play was introduced as a mutant strategy: a frivolous activity that uses energy and increases the probability of dying over resting with no direct fitness benefit. Simulations show that play behavior becomes fixed in the population and the time spent playing is maintained at a low rate in spite of its costly nature. When play behavior is functional by increasing foraging ability, it evolves quickly and the time individuals spend playing increases, but eventually the population of players collapses and play disappears. We...
What is the nature of comparative psychology and how does or should it relate to evolutionary psy... more What is the nature of comparative psychology and how does or should it relate to evolutionary psychology? This is a time of reassessment of both fields and this article reviews the history of comparative psychology and its relationships with evolutionary psychology, ethology, and other approaches to behavior from the perspective of a former editor of the Journal of Comparative Psychology who has spent many decades engaged in research in animal behavior. Special attention is given to a reassessment of comparative psychology that was carried out in 1987. The various tensions and orientations that seem endemic to comparative psychology may, in fact, be both a strength and weakness as comparative psychology and evolutionary approaches to human psychology return to issues prominent in the late 19thCentury, when both fields were just becoming established.
Contextual flexibility in prey restraint behaviour has been documented in advanced snakes (Colubr... more Contextual flexibility in prey restraint behaviour has been documented in advanced snakes (Colubroidea), but the degree of flexibility for earlier snake lineages has been largely unstudied. We document the prey restraint behaviour of five snake species belonging to three early macrostomate lineages: Loxocemidae, Erycinae and Boidae. Species from these lineages were chosen for this study because they utilize similar prey resources but exhibit different ecological habits that may have important consequences on prey restraint behaviour. Snakes (n = 27) were studied in a systematic experimental design assessing the effects of mouse size (small and large) and status (live and dead) across a total of 216 feeding trials. Loxocemus and Erycine snakes were highly flexible in their prey restraint behaviour patterns and these varied across prey category. Individuals of Boa constrictor exhibited very little contextual flexibility in feeding behaviour, confirming earlier reports. Flexibility in ...
There has been little quantitative research on the reactivity of non‐human species to either an o... more There has been little quantitative research on the reactivity of non‐human species to either an observer or to the presence of humans in general. This study describes the responses of black bears (Ursus americanus) to the presence of humans. Two pairs (male‐female) and (female‐female) of same‐aged captive black bears kept at separate locations were observed in 60‐min sessions with their behavior scanned every 30 s. 146 h of systematic observation were completed over a 30‐month period.Data for each session were collapsed into 30 two‐min blocks and linear regression analysis was performed on the rates of various behavior patterns. At a relatively remote, undisturbed location rates of many behavior patterns and groupings by activity level were highly correlated with time period within the 60‐min session. Behaviors that indicated resting or “relaxed” behavior increased from beginning to end of a session while behaviors requiring more energy decreased. Such large changes in rates of some...
Denning behavior has long remained the least observed aspect of bear behavior. During 2010–2013, ... more Denning behavior has long remained the least observed aspect of bear behavior. During 2010–2013, we used webcams, microphones, the internet, and 14,602 h of archived video to document the denning behaviors of two adult wild black bears (Ursus americanus) as they gave birth and cared for four litters through six winters in northeastern Minnesota. Observations included types of dens, labor, pre-parturient genital swelling, birthing positions, post-partum vocalizations, mothers removing amniotic tissues and warming newborn cubs in sub-freezing temperatures, frequency of nursing, cubs establishing nipple order, yearlings suckling, the ingestion of snow and icicles, the ingestion of foot pads, urination and defecation in latrine areas, toilet-licking, eye opening, reciprocal tongue-licking, play, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and possible dreaming, and reactions to wildlife intruders. The use of this new method for observing natural bear dens allowed the identification of many behaviors...
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Papers by Gordon Burghardt