The Paramārthasamudgata chapter of the Saṁdhinirmocanasūtra explores the philosophy of language f... more The Paramārthasamudgata chapter of the Saṁdhinirmocanasūtra explores the philosophy of language from the perspective of the early Yogācāra school, predating the establishment of the Mind-only theory, within the framework of three characters or *trilakṣaṇa (later commonly known as three natures or trisvabhāva): the imagined, the dependent, and the perfected. Tsong kha pa, the founder of the Dge lugs pa in Tibet, and his successors meticulously analyze the sūtra along with Woncheuk’s commentary, elucidating the fundamental tenets of its philosophy of language. The present paper reexamines the early Yogācāra’s philosophy of language, which has already been extensively studied, with a new perspective based on the discussion of the three characters in the opening section of Tsong kha pa’s Legs bshad snying po and commentaries on it. The main points can be summarized as follows. The phenomenal world, existing prior to linguistic conceptualization, i.e., the dependent, exists as the domain of conceptual cognition (vikalpagocara) or as the sign of concept formation (saṁskāranimitta). It serves as the foundation for conceptuality, providing the material for linguistic expression. The imag- ined, formulated through concept formation, not only depends on conceptual cognition but also exists from its own side (rang ngos nas grub pa). The imagined manifests its existence towards cognition, and conceptual cognition initiates the process of concept formation towards the imagined object. Conceptuality is achieved through this process of interaction. However, there persists a common misconception among ordinary beings that the imagined character exists entirely independently of language and cognition, as if it were established solely based on its specific character (svalakṣaṇa) serving as the foundation for determination. Consequently, they find themselves entrapped in a stagnant conceptuality, losing sight of the vibrant phenomenal world. The Āryas, through their consciousness during meditative equipoise, recognize the unreality of the imagined character within the dependent. In that moment, they perceive the absence of the imagined, which is ascertained as the perfected character. Furthermore, upon emerging from meditation, they perceive the bare phenomenal world, i.e., the dependent, which is entirely free from the imagined character. According to the Dge lugs pa’s analysis, the Yogācāra’s philosophy of language reveals the interplay between cognition and conceptualized objects. The conceptuality is achieved through movement from the side of cognition toward the other side (phar) and from the side of concepts toward this side (tshur). Drawing inspiration from Maurice Merleau-Ponty, this interaction can be termed a chiasme or intertwining. The chiasme, emerging when language is set in motion, forms the basis of the philosophy of language expounded in the Saṁdhinirmocanasūtra, as discovered by the Dge lugs pa scholars.
The current study, following our previous paper, seeks to clarify the Tibetans’ comprehension of ... more The current study, following our previous paper, seeks to clarify the Tibetans’ comprehension of the Tibetan script and language, with a specific focus on the perspective of Si tu chos kyi ’byung gnas. This paper explores the theory of particles (tshig phrad) expounded in verses 9c–17a of Thu mi’s Sum cu pa. These particles encompass the la particles, genitive markers, ergative-instrumental markers, adjunctive-adversative particles (kyang, etc.), adjunctive-explicative particles (ste, etc.), disjunctive-and- interrogative conjunctions (gam, etc.), and ablative case markers. Si tu was undeniably an innovative grammarian. His profound knowledge of Sanskrit grammar led him to formulate a unique system of Tibetan grammar, characterized not as descriptive but as normative grammar. Nevertheless, previous studies have not adequately examined Si tu’s originality as a commentator in interpreting individual verses in the Sum cu pa. This paper takes a closer look at verses 9c–11 of the Sum cu pa, revealing Si tu’s critical analysis and new interpretations, particularly based on his critique of Rnam gling paṇ chen’s ideas. As a result of our investigation, it becomes evident that Si tu’s new interpretations excel in many respects compared to previous ones. He was fully aware of problems in earlier interpretations, and concurrently, he strongly believed that the Sum cu pa was written in accordance with the scholar’s method of composition (mkhas pa’i bstan bcos kyi lugs). Ensuring that Thu mi’s statements in the Sum cu pa make sense and providing a rational interpretation are crucial principles in Si tu’s commentary.
The purpose of this study is to reveal the Tibetans’ own understanding of the Tibetan script (yi ... more The purpose of this study is to reveal the Tibetans’ own understanding of the Tibetan script (yi ge) based on a reading of Si tu’s commentary on the Sum cu pa, entitled Mkhas pa’i mgul rgyan mu tig phreng mdzes, one of the leading treatises in classical Tibetan grammar. Si tu uses the term yi ge (Skt. akṣara) in two senses: “syllable” (e.g., /a/, /i/, /ka/, /kha/, etc.) and “script” (e.g., ཀ་ ཁ་ etc.). In reading Si tu’s commentary, one must always be aware of the ambiguity of yi ge. Then, yi ge is divided into two categories: āli (“a-series”) and kāli (“ka-series”). In Si tu’s understand- ing, Thon mi discusses only four ālis: /i/, /u/, /e/, and /o/. This means that, according to Si tu, āli does not include /a/. The four vowel signs for -i, -u, -e, and -o are also called a ̄li. The thirty syllables from /ka/ to /a/ are called kāli. Also, the thirty basic letters (ming gzhi) from ཀ་ to ཨ་, which represent these syllables, are called kāli. It should be noted that the Tibetan kāli is not necessarily an element containing a consonant; for within the thirty kālis is included /a/, which is represented by either འ་ or ཨ་. The present article contains an annotated Japanese translation of the beginning section of Si tu’s commentary. What a close reading of the text reveals is Si tu’s unique idea of the ambiguity of yi ge, which emerges as he goes back and forth between discussions about written language and spoken language.
In recent years, there have been active attempts, especially among Western scholars, to view Budd... more In recent years, there have been active attempts, especially among Western scholars, to view Buddhist philosophy as a form of spiritual exercises (exercices spirituels), following the footsteps of Pierre Hadot in his study of ancient Greek philosophy. This study is aimed at identifying elements of spiritual exercises in the Indo-Tibetan Madhyamaka philosophy. Its special focuses are on Atis ́a’s Madhyamakopades ́a, the Bka’ brgyud pa’s treatises on “inquiry of the mind” (sems ’tshol), and the Dge lugs pa’s lta khrid literature. Most notable in Atis ́a’s Madhyamakopades ́a is its emphasis on the investigation of the mind, which is reminiscentoftheteachingsoftheMaha ̄vairocana ̄bhisam ̇bodhiandtheBodhicittavivaran.a,andwhich later developed into the Tibetan theory of practice known as dbu ma’i lta khrid (“a guidance on the Madhyamaka view”). Atis ́a describes the method of observing the true nature of the mind, which is not reducible to material elements, thereby ceasing conceptual thought and attaining non-conceptual wisdom. His method has affinities with the teachings of Maha ̄mudra ̄, which originated with Saraha and was passed down to the Bka’ brgyud pa practitioners. It was Tsong kha pa who opposed the Bka’ brgyud pa’s quietist theory, which was popular in Tibet during his period. He developed a new theory of spiritual exercise centering on analytical thinking. According to the theory advocated by Tsong kha pa and his successors of the Dge lugs pa, a practitioner must first identify the notion of ego, then negate the substantiality of ego by reasoning, and sustain the ascertaining consciousness while concentrating on emptiness, which is characterized as the mere absence (med dgag) of substantiality. Tsong kha pa and his successors reveal how a practitioner gradually overcomes his fear of emptiness in the process of entering into and arising out of meditative equipoise, and how he captures the compatibility of manifestation and emptiness. Even if the acceptance or rejection of quietism is a major point of contention in Tibetan Madhyamaka philosophy, there is no doubt that the essential qualities of spiritual exercises, which Pierre Hadot defines as “a voluntary, personal practice, intended to bring about a transformation of the individual, a transfor- mation of the self,” are universally observed there. The concept of spiritual exercise is indispensable in order to properly grasp the essence of the Madhyamaka philosophy.
This article contains an annotated Japanese translation of the first half of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam ... more This article contains an annotated Japanese translation of the first half of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud (The Tale of Rāmaṇa), an ornate epic on the story of the Tibetan Rāmāyaṇa, written by the Dge lugs pa scholar-monk Zhang zhung chos dbang grags pa (1404--69). The story of Rāmaṇa (Rāma) and Sītā is well known in Tibetan literary tradition. It first appeared in the Dunhuan documents that were written in circa 800 \textsc{ce; and since then it has been told in many Tibetan literary works up to the present time. One important work among them is the summary of the story found in Dmar ston chos rgyal's commentary on the Sa skya legs bshad, written in the thirteenth century. The framework of Chos dbang grags pa's story is based primarily on Dmar ston chos rgyal's summary. The Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is rich in its usage of poetic ornaments (rgyan, alaṁkāra) and poetic vocabulary derived from Sanskrit synonymics (mngon brjod, abhidhāna), both of which are essential elements in the vivid depiction of each character's mental states. What is also of interest is its compositional style that is reminiscent of the Gauḍī from eastern India. For instance, Chos dbang grags pa prefers highly exaggerated expressions, which are characteristic of the Gauḍī style. Many of his verses are incomprehensible without the knowledge of the Sanskrit literary arts. This however does not mean that the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is merely an imitation of Sanskrit literature. Chos dbang grags pa's creativity does occur in his profound expression of human sentiments as well as in his view of worldly affairs presented from the Buddhist perspective.
This article contains an annotated Japanese translation of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud of Zhang zhu... more This article contains an annotated Japanese translation of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud of Zhang zhung chos dbang grags pa, together with an introductory analysis of its rhetoric. The first half of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is translated in our previous paper. Therefore the remaining portion appears here.
Like many other Tibetan texts written in poetic verse, the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is composed in accordance with the theory of Daṇḍin's Kāvyādarśa. Poetic ornaments (rgyan, alaṁkāra) such as simile (dpe, upamā), metaphors (gzugs can, rūpaka), poetic fancy (rab rtog, utprekṣā), concise speech (bsdus brjod, samāsokti), repetition of syllables (zung ldan, yamaka) and so forth, all of which are prescribed in the Kāvyādarśa, appear throughout the work. But what attracts our attention is that Chos dbang grags pa frequently uses a rhetorical device that is not prescribed by Daṇḍin. Don grub rgyal, a twentieth century scholar and writer, calls it ``an implicit metaphor'' (sbas pa'i gzugs can). This is a metaphor where what compares (dpe) is explicitly stated but the subject of comparison (dpe can) is not, as in lag sor nyi 'od tshogs kyis ni pad ma'i tshal 'di mngon par phye ("The fingers of their hands, bundles of sunlight, made this lotus garden [= the box Sītā was trapped in] bloom.").
This technique, which gives the readers a sense of intermingling reality and illusion, has the effect of intensely expressing the emotions of each character. The fact that implicit metaphors are used so often indicates that the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is written for the readers who already know the plot of the story.
The reason that the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is written by the Dge lugs Buddhist monk scholar Chos dbang grags pa is not clear. It is unlikely that the author composed this work for enlightening or educational purposes. Rather he must have created this work for the purpose of self-discipline or for the completion of his ideal world of art. At the root of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud must have been the spirit of l'art pour l'art.
The Meghadūta The Cloud Messenger is a lyrical piece on love and sorrow written by Kālidāsa 45 th... more The Meghadūta The Cloud Messenger is a lyrical piece on love and sorrow written by Kālidāsa 45 th cent.. It was translated into Tibetan under the title of Sprin gyi pho nya by Byang chub rtse mo 130380 et al. The Tibetan version of the Meghadūta occupies a unique place in the history of Tibetan literature. Although the Tibetan Meghadūta was included in the sgra mdo section of the bstan gyur, the tradition of lecturing and commenting on the text was never established during the classical period. This was probably because of two main reasons. First, the Tibetan translation of the text prepared by Byang chub rtse mo et al. lacks accuracy in many places, making it highly difficult to comprehend without appropriate knowledge of the original Sanskrit. Secondly, given that the main subject of the Meghadūta is love and grief of separation from ones beloved wife, it is natural to assume that the text has not been closely studied in the Tibetan monastic tradition. Only after the Chinese and Hindi translations of the Meghadūta became available in the twentieth century, did the text get reevaluated by modern Tibetan scholars such as A lags dor zhi gdong drug snyems blo 1935 , Rak ra bkras mthong thub bstan chos dar 1925 , and Nor brang o rgyan 1933 , who were active outside monasteries. These modern commentators provide their own interpretations of the Meghadūta without adhering to the literal meaning of the words in the Tibetan translation, and attempt to present a new reading of the text, which, however, could benefit from careful consideration of the original Sanskrit text.
abstract: This paper analyzes the myth of Maitreya from the perspective of a Tibetan Buddhist com... more abstract: This paper analyzes the myth of Maitreya from the perspective of a Tibetan Buddhist commentarial tradition. The worship of Maitreya as the future buddha is prevalent in all Buddhist countries. The notion of a mystical encounter with Maitreya plays an important role there. Then, when we see what happened in Tibet, we notice that the meaning of Maitreya myth has been interpreted in a unique way. Instead of saying that Maitreya will become the next buddha, many Tibetan scholars argue that he is already a buddha. This idea was suggested by Tsong kha pa blo bzang grags pa (1357-1419) and later developed by scholars belonging to the Dge lugs pa tradition. 'Jam dbyangs bzhad pa ngag dbang brtson 'grus (1648-1721), for instance, asserts that Maitreya attained enlightenment in the past, and that Maitreya, currently dwelling in the Tuṣita Heaven, is a Manifestation Body of the buddha. 'Jam dbyangs bzhad pa distinguishes between Maitreya's external appearance (the common form) and his real nature (the uncommon form), and thus tries to establish that Maitreya is really a buddha, even if he may behave like a bodhisattva. Furthremore, 'Jam dbyangs bzhad pa stresses that the believer who worships Maitreya as a buddha can accumulate great merit by virtue of his faith; for buddhahood is simultaneously manifested in various emanations in the Tuṣita Heaven, in the Jambudvīpa, and potentially in any other place. This is a new type of Maitreya worship; it has nothing to do with Pure Land devotions or messianic belief, but is rather linked to the traditional Mahāyāna doctrine that buddhahood is eternal and omnipresent.
What objects should be negated in the process of truth-seeking? Madhyamaka philosophy in Tibet pa... more What objects should be negated in the process of truth-seeking? Madhyamaka philosophy in Tibet particularly after the fifteenth century turns around the question of the object of negation, or the object to be negated (dgag bya). Tsong kha pa blo bzang grags pa (1357–1419), the founder of the Dge lugs tradition, considers that identifying the object of negation is the core issue of his Madhyamaka philosophy. He analyzes how people erroneously apprehend the nature of the phenomenal world without identifying the object of negation correctly, and notes that the notion of things being truly established (bden par grub pa) is precisely the object to be negated, which nevertheless appears in our mind as being inseparable from the things. The importance of Tsong kha pa's theory of the object of negation should not be dismissed; it has had great influence on later Dge lugs tradition as we can see in both the philosophical and poetical works of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This paper examines the essence of Tsong kha pa's theory by considering relevant passages from his Dgongs pa rab gsal (1418) as well as other later works by his successors of the Dge lugs tradition.
The Paramārthasamudgata chapter of the Saṁdhinirmocanasūtra explores the philosophy of language f... more The Paramārthasamudgata chapter of the Saṁdhinirmocanasūtra explores the philosophy of language from the perspective of the early Yogācāra school, predating the establishment of the Mind-only theory, within the framework of three characters or *trilakṣaṇa (later commonly known as three natures or trisvabhāva): the imagined, the dependent, and the perfected. Tsong kha pa, the founder of the Dge lugs pa in Tibet, and his successors meticulously analyze the sūtra along with Woncheuk’s commentary, elucidating the fundamental tenets of its philosophy of language. The present paper reexamines the early Yogācāra’s philosophy of language, which has already been extensively studied, with a new perspective based on the discussion of the three characters in the opening section of Tsong kha pa’s Legs bshad snying po and commentaries on it. The main points can be summarized as follows. The phenomenal world, existing prior to linguistic conceptualization, i.e., the dependent, exists as the domain of conceptual cognition (vikalpagocara) or as the sign of concept formation (saṁskāranimitta). It serves as the foundation for conceptuality, providing the material for linguistic expression. The imag- ined, formulated through concept formation, not only depends on conceptual cognition but also exists from its own side (rang ngos nas grub pa). The imagined manifests its existence towards cognition, and conceptual cognition initiates the process of concept formation towards the imagined object. Conceptuality is achieved through this process of interaction. However, there persists a common misconception among ordinary beings that the imagined character exists entirely independently of language and cognition, as if it were established solely based on its specific character (svalakṣaṇa) serving as the foundation for determination. Consequently, they find themselves entrapped in a stagnant conceptuality, losing sight of the vibrant phenomenal world. The Āryas, through their consciousness during meditative equipoise, recognize the unreality of the imagined character within the dependent. In that moment, they perceive the absence of the imagined, which is ascertained as the perfected character. Furthermore, upon emerging from meditation, they perceive the bare phenomenal world, i.e., the dependent, which is entirely free from the imagined character. According to the Dge lugs pa’s analysis, the Yogācāra’s philosophy of language reveals the interplay between cognition and conceptualized objects. The conceptuality is achieved through movement from the side of cognition toward the other side (phar) and from the side of concepts toward this side (tshur). Drawing inspiration from Maurice Merleau-Ponty, this interaction can be termed a chiasme or intertwining. The chiasme, emerging when language is set in motion, forms the basis of the philosophy of language expounded in the Saṁdhinirmocanasūtra, as discovered by the Dge lugs pa scholars.
The current study, following our previous paper, seeks to clarify the Tibetans’ comprehension of ... more The current study, following our previous paper, seeks to clarify the Tibetans’ comprehension of the Tibetan script and language, with a specific focus on the perspective of Si tu chos kyi ’byung gnas. This paper explores the theory of particles (tshig phrad) expounded in verses 9c–17a of Thu mi’s Sum cu pa. These particles encompass the la particles, genitive markers, ergative-instrumental markers, adjunctive-adversative particles (kyang, etc.), adjunctive-explicative particles (ste, etc.), disjunctive-and- interrogative conjunctions (gam, etc.), and ablative case markers. Si tu was undeniably an innovative grammarian. His profound knowledge of Sanskrit grammar led him to formulate a unique system of Tibetan grammar, characterized not as descriptive but as normative grammar. Nevertheless, previous studies have not adequately examined Si tu’s originality as a commentator in interpreting individual verses in the Sum cu pa. This paper takes a closer look at verses 9c–11 of the Sum cu pa, revealing Si tu’s critical analysis and new interpretations, particularly based on his critique of Rnam gling paṇ chen’s ideas. As a result of our investigation, it becomes evident that Si tu’s new interpretations excel in many respects compared to previous ones. He was fully aware of problems in earlier interpretations, and concurrently, he strongly believed that the Sum cu pa was written in accordance with the scholar’s method of composition (mkhas pa’i bstan bcos kyi lugs). Ensuring that Thu mi’s statements in the Sum cu pa make sense and providing a rational interpretation are crucial principles in Si tu’s commentary.
The purpose of this study is to reveal the Tibetans’ own understanding of the Tibetan script (yi ... more The purpose of this study is to reveal the Tibetans’ own understanding of the Tibetan script (yi ge) based on a reading of Si tu’s commentary on the Sum cu pa, entitled Mkhas pa’i mgul rgyan mu tig phreng mdzes, one of the leading treatises in classical Tibetan grammar. Si tu uses the term yi ge (Skt. akṣara) in two senses: “syllable” (e.g., /a/, /i/, /ka/, /kha/, etc.) and “script” (e.g., ཀ་ ཁ་ etc.). In reading Si tu’s commentary, one must always be aware of the ambiguity of yi ge. Then, yi ge is divided into two categories: āli (“a-series”) and kāli (“ka-series”). In Si tu’s understand- ing, Thon mi discusses only four ālis: /i/, /u/, /e/, and /o/. This means that, according to Si tu, āli does not include /a/. The four vowel signs for -i, -u, -e, and -o are also called a ̄li. The thirty syllables from /ka/ to /a/ are called kāli. Also, the thirty basic letters (ming gzhi) from ཀ་ to ཨ་, which represent these syllables, are called kāli. It should be noted that the Tibetan kāli is not necessarily an element containing a consonant; for within the thirty kālis is included /a/, which is represented by either འ་ or ཨ་. The present article contains an annotated Japanese translation of the beginning section of Si tu’s commentary. What a close reading of the text reveals is Si tu’s unique idea of the ambiguity of yi ge, which emerges as he goes back and forth between discussions about written language and spoken language.
In recent years, there have been active attempts, especially among Western scholars, to view Budd... more In recent years, there have been active attempts, especially among Western scholars, to view Buddhist philosophy as a form of spiritual exercises (exercices spirituels), following the footsteps of Pierre Hadot in his study of ancient Greek philosophy. This study is aimed at identifying elements of spiritual exercises in the Indo-Tibetan Madhyamaka philosophy. Its special focuses are on Atis ́a’s Madhyamakopades ́a, the Bka’ brgyud pa’s treatises on “inquiry of the mind” (sems ’tshol), and the Dge lugs pa’s lta khrid literature. Most notable in Atis ́a’s Madhyamakopades ́a is its emphasis on the investigation of the mind, which is reminiscentoftheteachingsoftheMaha ̄vairocana ̄bhisam ̇bodhiandtheBodhicittavivaran.a,andwhich later developed into the Tibetan theory of practice known as dbu ma’i lta khrid (“a guidance on the Madhyamaka view”). Atis ́a describes the method of observing the true nature of the mind, which is not reducible to material elements, thereby ceasing conceptual thought and attaining non-conceptual wisdom. His method has affinities with the teachings of Maha ̄mudra ̄, which originated with Saraha and was passed down to the Bka’ brgyud pa practitioners. It was Tsong kha pa who opposed the Bka’ brgyud pa’s quietist theory, which was popular in Tibet during his period. He developed a new theory of spiritual exercise centering on analytical thinking. According to the theory advocated by Tsong kha pa and his successors of the Dge lugs pa, a practitioner must first identify the notion of ego, then negate the substantiality of ego by reasoning, and sustain the ascertaining consciousness while concentrating on emptiness, which is characterized as the mere absence (med dgag) of substantiality. Tsong kha pa and his successors reveal how a practitioner gradually overcomes his fear of emptiness in the process of entering into and arising out of meditative equipoise, and how he captures the compatibility of manifestation and emptiness. Even if the acceptance or rejection of quietism is a major point of contention in Tibetan Madhyamaka philosophy, there is no doubt that the essential qualities of spiritual exercises, which Pierre Hadot defines as “a voluntary, personal practice, intended to bring about a transformation of the individual, a transfor- mation of the self,” are universally observed there. The concept of spiritual exercise is indispensable in order to properly grasp the essence of the Madhyamaka philosophy.
This article contains an annotated Japanese translation of the first half of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam ... more This article contains an annotated Japanese translation of the first half of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud (The Tale of Rāmaṇa), an ornate epic on the story of the Tibetan Rāmāyaṇa, written by the Dge lugs pa scholar-monk Zhang zhung chos dbang grags pa (1404--69). The story of Rāmaṇa (Rāma) and Sītā is well known in Tibetan literary tradition. It first appeared in the Dunhuan documents that were written in circa 800 \textsc{ce; and since then it has been told in many Tibetan literary works up to the present time. One important work among them is the summary of the story found in Dmar ston chos rgyal's commentary on the Sa skya legs bshad, written in the thirteenth century. The framework of Chos dbang grags pa's story is based primarily on Dmar ston chos rgyal's summary. The Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is rich in its usage of poetic ornaments (rgyan, alaṁkāra) and poetic vocabulary derived from Sanskrit synonymics (mngon brjod, abhidhāna), both of which are essential elements in the vivid depiction of each character's mental states. What is also of interest is its compositional style that is reminiscent of the Gauḍī from eastern India. For instance, Chos dbang grags pa prefers highly exaggerated expressions, which are characteristic of the Gauḍī style. Many of his verses are incomprehensible without the knowledge of the Sanskrit literary arts. This however does not mean that the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is merely an imitation of Sanskrit literature. Chos dbang grags pa's creativity does occur in his profound expression of human sentiments as well as in his view of worldly affairs presented from the Buddhist perspective.
This article contains an annotated Japanese translation of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud of Zhang zhu... more This article contains an annotated Japanese translation of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud of Zhang zhung chos dbang grags pa, together with an introductory analysis of its rhetoric. The first half of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is translated in our previous paper. Therefore the remaining portion appears here.
Like many other Tibetan texts written in poetic verse, the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is composed in accordance with the theory of Daṇḍin's Kāvyādarśa. Poetic ornaments (rgyan, alaṁkāra) such as simile (dpe, upamā), metaphors (gzugs can, rūpaka), poetic fancy (rab rtog, utprekṣā), concise speech (bsdus brjod, samāsokti), repetition of syllables (zung ldan, yamaka) and so forth, all of which are prescribed in the Kāvyādarśa, appear throughout the work. But what attracts our attention is that Chos dbang grags pa frequently uses a rhetorical device that is not prescribed by Daṇḍin. Don grub rgyal, a twentieth century scholar and writer, calls it ``an implicit metaphor'' (sbas pa'i gzugs can). This is a metaphor where what compares (dpe) is explicitly stated but the subject of comparison (dpe can) is not, as in lag sor nyi 'od tshogs kyis ni pad ma'i tshal 'di mngon par phye ("The fingers of their hands, bundles of sunlight, made this lotus garden [= the box Sītā was trapped in] bloom.").
This technique, which gives the readers a sense of intermingling reality and illusion, has the effect of intensely expressing the emotions of each character. The fact that implicit metaphors are used so often indicates that the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is written for the readers who already know the plot of the story.
The reason that the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is written by the Dge lugs Buddhist monk scholar Chos dbang grags pa is not clear. It is unlikely that the author composed this work for enlightening or educational purposes. Rather he must have created this work for the purpose of self-discipline or for the completion of his ideal world of art. At the root of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud must have been the spirit of l'art pour l'art.
The Meghadūta The Cloud Messenger is a lyrical piece on love and sorrow written by Kālidāsa 45 th... more The Meghadūta The Cloud Messenger is a lyrical piece on love and sorrow written by Kālidāsa 45 th cent.. It was translated into Tibetan under the title of Sprin gyi pho nya by Byang chub rtse mo 130380 et al. The Tibetan version of the Meghadūta occupies a unique place in the history of Tibetan literature. Although the Tibetan Meghadūta was included in the sgra mdo section of the bstan gyur, the tradition of lecturing and commenting on the text was never established during the classical period. This was probably because of two main reasons. First, the Tibetan translation of the text prepared by Byang chub rtse mo et al. lacks accuracy in many places, making it highly difficult to comprehend without appropriate knowledge of the original Sanskrit. Secondly, given that the main subject of the Meghadūta is love and grief of separation from ones beloved wife, it is natural to assume that the text has not been closely studied in the Tibetan monastic tradition. Only after the Chinese and Hindi translations of the Meghadūta became available in the twentieth century, did the text get reevaluated by modern Tibetan scholars such as A lags dor zhi gdong drug snyems blo 1935 , Rak ra bkras mthong thub bstan chos dar 1925 , and Nor brang o rgyan 1933 , who were active outside monasteries. These modern commentators provide their own interpretations of the Meghadūta without adhering to the literal meaning of the words in the Tibetan translation, and attempt to present a new reading of the text, which, however, could benefit from careful consideration of the original Sanskrit text.
abstract: This paper analyzes the myth of Maitreya from the perspective of a Tibetan Buddhist com... more abstract: This paper analyzes the myth of Maitreya from the perspective of a Tibetan Buddhist commentarial tradition. The worship of Maitreya as the future buddha is prevalent in all Buddhist countries. The notion of a mystical encounter with Maitreya plays an important role there. Then, when we see what happened in Tibet, we notice that the meaning of Maitreya myth has been interpreted in a unique way. Instead of saying that Maitreya will become the next buddha, many Tibetan scholars argue that he is already a buddha. This idea was suggested by Tsong kha pa blo bzang grags pa (1357-1419) and later developed by scholars belonging to the Dge lugs pa tradition. 'Jam dbyangs bzhad pa ngag dbang brtson 'grus (1648-1721), for instance, asserts that Maitreya attained enlightenment in the past, and that Maitreya, currently dwelling in the Tuṣita Heaven, is a Manifestation Body of the buddha. 'Jam dbyangs bzhad pa distinguishes between Maitreya's external appearance (the common form) and his real nature (the uncommon form), and thus tries to establish that Maitreya is really a buddha, even if he may behave like a bodhisattva. Furthremore, 'Jam dbyangs bzhad pa stresses that the believer who worships Maitreya as a buddha can accumulate great merit by virtue of his faith; for buddhahood is simultaneously manifested in various emanations in the Tuṣita Heaven, in the Jambudvīpa, and potentially in any other place. This is a new type of Maitreya worship; it has nothing to do with Pure Land devotions or messianic belief, but is rather linked to the traditional Mahāyāna doctrine that buddhahood is eternal and omnipresent.
What objects should be negated in the process of truth-seeking? Madhyamaka philosophy in Tibet pa... more What objects should be negated in the process of truth-seeking? Madhyamaka philosophy in Tibet particularly after the fifteenth century turns around the question of the object of negation, or the object to be negated (dgag bya). Tsong kha pa blo bzang grags pa (1357–1419), the founder of the Dge lugs tradition, considers that identifying the object of negation is the core issue of his Madhyamaka philosophy. He analyzes how people erroneously apprehend the nature of the phenomenal world without identifying the object of negation correctly, and notes that the notion of things being truly established (bden par grub pa) is precisely the object to be negated, which nevertheless appears in our mind as being inseparable from the things. The importance of Tsong kha pa's theory of the object of negation should not be dismissed; it has had great influence on later Dge lugs tradition as we can see in both the philosophical and poetical works of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This paper examines the essence of Tsong kha pa's theory by considering relevant passages from his Dgongs pa rab gsal (1418) as well as other later works by his successors of the Dge lugs tradition.
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Papers by Hiroshi Nemoto རྩ་བ་ཤེས་རབ་བཟང་པོ།
The phenomenal world, existing prior to linguistic conceptualization, i.e., the dependent, exists as the domain of conceptual cognition (vikalpagocara) or as the sign of concept formation (saṁskāranimitta). It serves as the foundation for conceptuality, providing the material for linguistic expression. The imag- ined, formulated through concept formation, not only depends on conceptual cognition but also exists from its own side (rang ngos nas grub pa). The imagined manifests its existence towards cognition, and conceptual cognition initiates the process of concept formation towards the imagined object. Conceptuality is achieved through this process of interaction.
However, there persists a common misconception among ordinary beings that the imagined character exists entirely independently of language and cognition, as if it were established solely based on its specific character (svalakṣaṇa) serving as the foundation for determination. Consequently, they find themselves entrapped in a stagnant conceptuality, losing sight of the vibrant phenomenal world. The Āryas, through their consciousness during meditative equipoise, recognize the unreality of the imagined character within the dependent. In that moment, they perceive the absence of the imagined, which is ascertained as the perfected character. Furthermore, upon emerging from meditation, they perceive the bare phenomenal world, i.e., the dependent, which is entirely free from the imagined character.
According to the Dge lugs pa’s analysis, the Yogācāra’s philosophy of language reveals the interplay between cognition and conceptualized objects. The conceptuality is achieved through movement from the side of cognition toward the other side (phar) and from the side of concepts toward this side (tshur). Drawing inspiration from Maurice Merleau-Ponty, this interaction can be termed a chiasme or intertwining. The chiasme, emerging when language is set in motion, forms the basis of the philosophy of language expounded in the Saṁdhinirmocanasūtra, as discovered by the Dge lugs pa scholars.
As a result of our investigation, it becomes evident that Si tu’s new interpretations excel in many respects compared to previous ones. He was fully aware of problems in earlier interpretations, and concurrently, he strongly believed that the Sum cu pa was written in accordance with the scholar’s method of composition (mkhas pa’i bstan bcos kyi lugs). Ensuring that Thu mi’s statements in the Sum cu pa make sense and providing a rational interpretation are crucial principles in Si tu’s commentary.
Si tu uses the term yi ge (Skt. akṣara) in two senses: “syllable” (e.g., /a/, /i/, /ka/, /kha/, etc.) and “script” (e.g., ཀ་ ཁ་ etc.). In reading Si tu’s commentary, one must always be aware of the ambiguity of yi ge.
Then, yi ge is divided into two categories: āli (“a-series”) and kāli (“ka-series”). In Si tu’s understand- ing, Thon mi discusses only four ālis: /i/, /u/, /e/, and /o/. This means that, according to Si tu, āli does not include /a/. The four vowel signs for -i, -u, -e, and -o are also called a ̄li.
The thirty syllables from /ka/ to /a/ are called kāli. Also, the thirty basic letters (ming gzhi) from ཀ་ to ཨ་, which represent these syllables, are called kāli. It should be noted that the Tibetan kāli is not necessarily an element containing a consonant; for within the thirty kālis is included /a/, which is represented by either འ་ or ཨ་.
The present article contains an annotated Japanese translation of the beginning section of Si tu’s commentary. What a close reading of the text reveals is Si tu’s unique idea of the ambiguity of yi ge, which emerges as he goes back and forth between discussions about written language and spoken language.
Most notable in Atis ́a’s Madhyamakopades ́a is its emphasis on the investigation of the mind, which is reminiscentoftheteachingsoftheMaha ̄vairocana ̄bhisam ̇bodhiandtheBodhicittavivaran.a,andwhich later developed into the Tibetan theory of practice known as dbu ma’i lta khrid (“a guidance on the Madhyamaka view”). Atis ́a describes the method of observing the true nature of the mind, which is not reducible to material elements, thereby ceasing conceptual thought and attaining non-conceptual wisdom. His method has affinities with the teachings of Maha ̄mudra ̄, which originated with Saraha and was passed down to the Bka’ brgyud pa practitioners. It was Tsong kha pa who opposed the Bka’ brgyud pa’s quietist theory, which was popular in Tibet during his period. He developed a new theory of spiritual exercise centering on analytical thinking. According to the theory advocated by Tsong kha pa and his successors of the Dge lugs pa, a practitioner must first identify the notion of ego, then negate the substantiality of ego by reasoning, and sustain the ascertaining consciousness while concentrating on emptiness, which is characterized as the mere absence (med dgag) of substantiality. Tsong kha pa and his successors reveal how a practitioner gradually overcomes his fear of emptiness in the process of entering into and arising out of meditative equipoise, and how he captures the compatibility of manifestation and emptiness.
Even if the acceptance or rejection of quietism is a major point of contention in Tibetan Madhyamaka philosophy, there is no doubt that the essential qualities of spiritual exercises, which Pierre Hadot defines as “a voluntary, personal practice, intended to bring about a transformation of the individual, a transfor- mation of the self,” are universally observed there. The concept of spiritual exercise is indispensable in order to properly grasp the essence of the Madhyamaka philosophy.
Like many other Tibetan texts written in poetic verse, the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is composed in accordance with the theory of Daṇḍin's Kāvyādarśa. Poetic ornaments (rgyan, alaṁkāra) such as simile (dpe, upamā), metaphors (gzugs can, rūpaka), poetic fancy (rab rtog, utprekṣā), concise speech (bsdus brjod, samāsokti), repetition of syllables (zung ldan, yamaka) and so forth, all of which are prescribed in the Kāvyādarśa, appear throughout the work. But what attracts our attention is that Chos dbang grags pa frequently uses a rhetorical device that is not prescribed by Daṇḍin. Don grub rgyal, a twentieth century scholar and writer, calls it ``an implicit metaphor'' (sbas pa'i gzugs can). This is a metaphor where what compares (dpe) is explicitly stated but the subject of comparison (dpe can) is not, as in lag sor nyi 'od tshogs kyis ni pad ma'i tshal 'di mngon par phye ("The fingers of their hands, bundles of sunlight, made this lotus garden [= the box Sītā was trapped in] bloom.").
This technique, which gives the readers a sense of intermingling reality and illusion, has the effect of intensely expressing the emotions of each character. The fact that implicit metaphors are used so often indicates that the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is written for the readers who already know the plot of the story.
The reason that the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is written by the Dge lugs Buddhist monk scholar Chos dbang grags pa is not clear. It is unlikely that the author composed this work for enlightening or educational purposes. Rather he must have created this work for the purpose of self-discipline or for the completion of his ideal world of art. At the root of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud must have been the spirit of l'art pour l'art.
The phenomenal world, existing prior to linguistic conceptualization, i.e., the dependent, exists as the domain of conceptual cognition (vikalpagocara) or as the sign of concept formation (saṁskāranimitta). It serves as the foundation for conceptuality, providing the material for linguistic expression. The imag- ined, formulated through concept formation, not only depends on conceptual cognition but also exists from its own side (rang ngos nas grub pa). The imagined manifests its existence towards cognition, and conceptual cognition initiates the process of concept formation towards the imagined object. Conceptuality is achieved through this process of interaction.
However, there persists a common misconception among ordinary beings that the imagined character exists entirely independently of language and cognition, as if it were established solely based on its specific character (svalakṣaṇa) serving as the foundation for determination. Consequently, they find themselves entrapped in a stagnant conceptuality, losing sight of the vibrant phenomenal world. The Āryas, through their consciousness during meditative equipoise, recognize the unreality of the imagined character within the dependent. In that moment, they perceive the absence of the imagined, which is ascertained as the perfected character. Furthermore, upon emerging from meditation, they perceive the bare phenomenal world, i.e., the dependent, which is entirely free from the imagined character.
According to the Dge lugs pa’s analysis, the Yogācāra’s philosophy of language reveals the interplay between cognition and conceptualized objects. The conceptuality is achieved through movement from the side of cognition toward the other side (phar) and from the side of concepts toward this side (tshur). Drawing inspiration from Maurice Merleau-Ponty, this interaction can be termed a chiasme or intertwining. The chiasme, emerging when language is set in motion, forms the basis of the philosophy of language expounded in the Saṁdhinirmocanasūtra, as discovered by the Dge lugs pa scholars.
As a result of our investigation, it becomes evident that Si tu’s new interpretations excel in many respects compared to previous ones. He was fully aware of problems in earlier interpretations, and concurrently, he strongly believed that the Sum cu pa was written in accordance with the scholar’s method of composition (mkhas pa’i bstan bcos kyi lugs). Ensuring that Thu mi’s statements in the Sum cu pa make sense and providing a rational interpretation are crucial principles in Si tu’s commentary.
Si tu uses the term yi ge (Skt. akṣara) in two senses: “syllable” (e.g., /a/, /i/, /ka/, /kha/, etc.) and “script” (e.g., ཀ་ ཁ་ etc.). In reading Si tu’s commentary, one must always be aware of the ambiguity of yi ge.
Then, yi ge is divided into two categories: āli (“a-series”) and kāli (“ka-series”). In Si tu’s understand- ing, Thon mi discusses only four ālis: /i/, /u/, /e/, and /o/. This means that, according to Si tu, āli does not include /a/. The four vowel signs for -i, -u, -e, and -o are also called a ̄li.
The thirty syllables from /ka/ to /a/ are called kāli. Also, the thirty basic letters (ming gzhi) from ཀ་ to ཨ་, which represent these syllables, are called kāli. It should be noted that the Tibetan kāli is not necessarily an element containing a consonant; for within the thirty kālis is included /a/, which is represented by either འ་ or ཨ་.
The present article contains an annotated Japanese translation of the beginning section of Si tu’s commentary. What a close reading of the text reveals is Si tu’s unique idea of the ambiguity of yi ge, which emerges as he goes back and forth between discussions about written language and spoken language.
Most notable in Atis ́a’s Madhyamakopades ́a is its emphasis on the investigation of the mind, which is reminiscentoftheteachingsoftheMaha ̄vairocana ̄bhisam ̇bodhiandtheBodhicittavivaran.a,andwhich later developed into the Tibetan theory of practice known as dbu ma’i lta khrid (“a guidance on the Madhyamaka view”). Atis ́a describes the method of observing the true nature of the mind, which is not reducible to material elements, thereby ceasing conceptual thought and attaining non-conceptual wisdom. His method has affinities with the teachings of Maha ̄mudra ̄, which originated with Saraha and was passed down to the Bka’ brgyud pa practitioners. It was Tsong kha pa who opposed the Bka’ brgyud pa’s quietist theory, which was popular in Tibet during his period. He developed a new theory of spiritual exercise centering on analytical thinking. According to the theory advocated by Tsong kha pa and his successors of the Dge lugs pa, a practitioner must first identify the notion of ego, then negate the substantiality of ego by reasoning, and sustain the ascertaining consciousness while concentrating on emptiness, which is characterized as the mere absence (med dgag) of substantiality. Tsong kha pa and his successors reveal how a practitioner gradually overcomes his fear of emptiness in the process of entering into and arising out of meditative equipoise, and how he captures the compatibility of manifestation and emptiness.
Even if the acceptance or rejection of quietism is a major point of contention in Tibetan Madhyamaka philosophy, there is no doubt that the essential qualities of spiritual exercises, which Pierre Hadot defines as “a voluntary, personal practice, intended to bring about a transformation of the individual, a transfor- mation of the self,” are universally observed there. The concept of spiritual exercise is indispensable in order to properly grasp the essence of the Madhyamaka philosophy.
Like many other Tibetan texts written in poetic verse, the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is composed in accordance with the theory of Daṇḍin's Kāvyādarśa. Poetic ornaments (rgyan, alaṁkāra) such as simile (dpe, upamā), metaphors (gzugs can, rūpaka), poetic fancy (rab rtog, utprekṣā), concise speech (bsdus brjod, samāsokti), repetition of syllables (zung ldan, yamaka) and so forth, all of which are prescribed in the Kāvyādarśa, appear throughout the work. But what attracts our attention is that Chos dbang grags pa frequently uses a rhetorical device that is not prescribed by Daṇḍin. Don grub rgyal, a twentieth century scholar and writer, calls it ``an implicit metaphor'' (sbas pa'i gzugs can). This is a metaphor where what compares (dpe) is explicitly stated but the subject of comparison (dpe can) is not, as in lag sor nyi 'od tshogs kyis ni pad ma'i tshal 'di mngon par phye ("The fingers of their hands, bundles of sunlight, made this lotus garden [= the box Sītā was trapped in] bloom.").
This technique, which gives the readers a sense of intermingling reality and illusion, has the effect of intensely expressing the emotions of each character. The fact that implicit metaphors are used so often indicates that the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is written for the readers who already know the plot of the story.
The reason that the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud is written by the Dge lugs Buddhist monk scholar Chos dbang grags pa is not clear. It is unlikely that the author composed this work for enlightening or educational purposes. Rather he must have created this work for the purpose of self-discipline or for the completion of his ideal world of art. At the root of the Rā ma ṇa'i gtam rgyud must have been the spirit of l'art pour l'art.