The accumulation of snow at the ground surface significantly influences heat transfer between soi... more The accumulation of snow at the ground surface significantly influences heat transfer between soil and atmosphere due to its fairly low thermal conductivity compared to natural soils. The thermal conductivity of snow varies mostly with density, but also with crystalline structure and grain to grain contact. Human activities such as winter maintenance may also lead to dramatic changes in the snow properties. Compacted snow accumulated on the side of any infrastructure is much denser than fresh snow and conducts heat more easily. The aim of this paper is to study the thermal conductivity of compacted snow and to develop a suitable thermal conductivity model. The thermal conductivity values obtained in this study varies from 0.12 W/mK and 0.54 W/mK for porosities from 0.4 to 0.68 and for a temperature of -12°C. The semi-empirical thermal conductivity model developed for 2-phase porous materials by Cote and Konrad has been adapted to model the thermal conductivity of compacted snow. This model uses a single empirical parameter κ 2p to account for porosity and structure effects (thermal conductivity ratio between the solid phase and the fluid phase). The analysis results showed that the model successfully described the experimental data within the experimental range of porosity while respecting the physical limits of thermal conductivity of air and ice. Since temperature affects the thermal conductivity ratio between ice and air, the model proved to handle very well effect of temperature for other data of compacted snow from the literature. The very good agreement between the values of the κ 2p parameter found for this study and for data from the literature helped develop a simple means to account for temperature effects on the thermal conductivity of compacted snow.
Generally, heat transfer in soils is governed by conduction. In rock-fill materials, however, the... more Generally, heat transfer in soils is governed by conduction. In rock-fill materials, however, the pore sizes are large enough to promote heat convection from the motion of air under pressure gradient (forced convection) or temperature gradient (natural convection). It has been found that convection significantly influences the heat transfer in rock-fill embankments such as railways, roadways and embankment dam in cold regions. The material characteristics that influence the most the rate of convection heat transfer is the intrinsic permeability. In a previous study, Cote et al. (2011a) developed a heat transfer cell where natural convection conditions were applied to 1 m³ rock-fill samples in order to establish their intrinsic permeability. They analysed the experimental data using an analytical relationship between the Nusselt number (Nu) and the Rayleigh number (Ra). This theoretical relationship is valid for perfectly insulated and impervious 2-dimensional square enclosure. As shown by the deviation from intrinsic permeability models for porous materials, the use of the theoretical relationship as induces a bias in the experimental intrinsic permeability values. In this paper, the heat transfer within the actual experimental heat transfer cell is analysed using numerical modelling of natural convection allowing to account for heat transfer in and out the imperfectly insulated cubic cell. A new Nu-Ra relationship is developed for this experimental setup. The previous experimental data are re-analysed according this Nu-Ra relationship in order to establish more accurate intrinsic permeability for values for the studied rock-fill materials. The results are compared to existing permeability models.
Suffusion is one of the main internal erosion processes in earth structures and their foundations... more Suffusion is one of the main internal erosion processes in earth structures and their foundations. The assessment of this phenomenon can be difficult since in-situ geotechnical properties of soils are variable and uncertain. By means of a case study, this paper aims at presenting a general method to assess the suffusion potential of compacted impervious cores of zoned embankment dams. First, the suffusion susceptibility of the compacted layers forming the analysed dam core is estimated from four soil parameters that can be easily measured in situ or in laboratory during construction. Second, the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the compacted layers is evaluated based on the amount of fines content and on available construction data. Moreover, the power dissipated by seepage flow is inferred based on the saturated hydraulic conductivity and simplified fluid boundary conditions. Finally, the combined consideration of erosion resistance index and dissipated energy allows the identification of zones characterized by a relatively larger suffusion potential.
Compacted tills are widely use as cores of embankment dams in northern Quebec. It is expected tha... more Compacted tills are widely use as cores of embankment dams in northern Quebec. It is expected that placement method in successive layers may result in a permeability anisotropy (rK) different from unity. A new cubic permeameter was designed to obtain the permeability ratio on the same sample. A special testing procedure was developed to limit seepage trough the inactive porous stones, i.e. the porous stones parallel to the seepage flow. Bovine gelatin, solid at temperatures less than 30 °C was used and proved to be highly efficient in sealing the inactive porous elements. Heating at 60 °C allows to remove the liquid gelatin without the need of dismantling the cell. A new percolation test can then be conducted on the same sample but in a different direction. Preliminary tests on a compacted glacial till have shown that the hydraulic conductivity values compared well to those obtained from tests using a flexible wall permeameter. The k anisotropy was found close to unity, which was al...
The behavior of roadways depends on many parameters generally not well known, particularly in are... more The behavior of roadways depends on many parameters generally not well known, particularly in areas in which climatic conditions are severe in winter. Two road sections have been instrumented to understand how frost and thaw actions are related to climate and the availability of water. Field data monitored by a dedicated data acquisition system were used to measure air temperature, thermal soil conditions, frost heave, total stress, and bearing capacity by the Benkelman beam test. The results show that automatic monitoring improves the ability to detect short thaw events during freezing. Furthermore, accurate knowledge of air temperatures and the thermal conditions of the soil are useful in the interpretation of bearing capacity measurements with the Benkelman beam test.
A simple, yet complete framework is introduced with the aim of modelling grain breakage in soils ... more A simple, yet complete framework is introduced with the aim of modelling grain breakage in soils and crushable granular materials. The evolution of grain breakage is measured using a specific parameter of the grain-size distribution. The evolution of this new breakage parameter is related to the applied mechanical work, which allows the predictions to be independent of the stress paths. The correlation function proposed is trilinear, and is capable of describing the initiation, development, and stabilization of breakage. The initial state, coupled with three additional parameters, is used to calibrate this function. The three parameters are related to a grain specific quantity representing the strength of the particles that form the granular medium. The theory of fractal fragmentation is adopted, and the final state is considered to be unique and described by a single parameter: the fractal dimension. When tested against experimental results, this model was able to correctly predict...
A one-dimensional model for the consolidation of thawing soils is formulated in terms of large-st... more A one-dimensional model for the consolidation of thawing soils is formulated in terms of large-strain consolidation and heat-transfer equations. The model integrates heat transfer due to conduction, phase change, and advection. The hydromechanical behaviour is modelled by large-strain consolidation theory. The equations are coupled in a moving boundary scheme developed in Lagrangian coordinates. Finite strains are allowed and nonlinear effective stress – void ratio – hydraulic conductivity relationships are proposed to characterize the thawing soil properties. Initial conditions and boundary conditions are presented with special consideration for the moving boundary condition at the thaw front developed in terms of large-strain consolidation. The proposed model is applied and compared with small-strain thaw consolidation theory in a theoretical working example of a thawing fine-grained soil sample. The modelling results are presented in terms of temperature, thaw penetration, settle...
In this study, employing a database of 19 concrete face rockfill dam (CFRD) cases, two prediction... more In this study, employing a database of 19 concrete face rockfill dam (CFRD) cases, two prediction methods for post-construction settlement of CFRDs are presented. In the first method, post-construction settlements are estimated using height of the embankment. In the second method, characterization of the stress–strain behavior of the compacted rockfill layers during construction allows prediction of the subsequent stress–strain–time behavior of the embankment. Knowledge of rock particles strength is necessary in both methods. In the presented methods, settlements are estimated separately for each of the three life-cycle phases: before, during, and after impoundment. The presented results show that, in addition to addressing some limitations of previous methods, the proposed approach is precise and highly practical. It also allows a better understanding of rockfill deformation mechanisms. Apart from using this method for predictive purposes, the presented graphs can be used to distin...
AbstractThe mechanical behavior of the interface between gravelly soils and structures may play a... more AbstractThe mechanical behavior of the interface between gravelly soils and structures may play a significant role on the response of many soil-structure systems to loading. Under cyclic excursion ...
Several studies can be found in the literature in which deformations of different rockfill dams a... more Several studies can be found in the literature in which deformations of different rockfill dams are presented and compared. However, this fact is often neglected that these deformations take place during three main phases in lifetime of a rockfill dam: construction, impoundment and operation. Correspondingly, few concentrated studies are done on the long-term deformations, i.e., during operation period of rockfill dams. In this paper, the factors that influence the time-dependent behavior of rockfill dams are reviewed according to the past studies. The field observations are compared to the results of the experimental works and justified with existing theories about rockfill compression. Finally, a new approach for prediction of the long-term deformations of rockfill dams is introduced.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 2005
The forward modeling of the dispersion curve of a layered medium calculated from the spectral cha... more The forward modeling of the dispersion curve of a layered medium calculated from the spectral characteristics of Rayleigh waves requires an efficient algorithm for predicting the surface displacements of the medium under a dynamic load. The usual methods for solving the wave equation are based on matrix methods prone to numerical problem or yielding to the determination of complex modes that are difficult to interpret. A modified linearized stiffness matrix method is proposed in this technical note to solve the discrete stiffness matrix. The developed algorithm is based on a finite element equation associating each surface wave mode to the resonant frequency of a structure with a stiffness depending on the wavelength. The filtering of complex wave modes to keep only suitable surface waves is avoided. Furthermore, the mesh design is based on the actual wavelength of each mode providing a better representation of higher modes. The new algorithm is validated with two irregular stiffness profiles.
Abstract Frost heave tests on overconsolidated clayey silt specimens have been conducted with and... more Abstract Frost heave tests on overconsolidated clayey silt specimens have been conducted with and without applied back-pressure. Frost heave characteristics are, at first approximation, independent upon the magnitude of applied back-pressure provided that the unfrozen soil remains saturated. For the soil studied the critical suction at which desaturation occurs is about 40 kPa. Pore pressures were also measured in the unfrozen soil during freezing. The experimental results confirm steady state flow conditions in overconsolidated soil specimen seven during the early stage of freezing. However, suctions in excess of 100 kPa can be generated at the frost front depending upon the freezing conditions. This, in turn, may lead to desaturation of the unfrozen soil near the frost front and render the analysis of a frost heave test even more complex. It is suggested to conduct frost heave test using a back-pressure equal to the hydrostatic pressure in the field and with a value of suction at the frost front close to that in the field in order to assess the relevant segregation potential.
The thermal conductivity of bitumen concrete is a key parameter in the thermal analysis of paveme... more The thermal conductivity of bitumen concrete is a key parameter in the thermal analysis of pavements submitted to widely varying climate conditions. This paper presents the experimental results of thermal conductivity of bitumen concrete typically used in the Province of Quebec. The results show that the thermal conductivity of bitumen concrete is dependent on the aggregate's mineral origin and on the amount of air voids. It is also shown that the presence of bitumen increases thermal conductivity compared to unbound aggregates. The paper demonstrates that the effect of bitumen creates thermal bridges between aggregate particles similarly to other types of binders such as Portland cement and natural binders found in sedimentary rocks. Based on these observations and on the analyses of over 80 data sets from the literature, an existing model is used to develop a simplified thermal conductivity equation to estimate this parameter for bitumen concrete.
Temperature distribution in the pavement structure, moisture distribution in granular soils, modu... more Temperature distribution in the pavement structure, moisture distribution in granular soils, modulus of the asphalt concrete, and fracture toughness of material in the pavement structure strongly influence the propagation and spacing of thermal contraction cracks. Fracture toughness was determined for frozen sand (subbase layer) and frozen crushed stone (base layer) by adapting established fracture mechanics test procedures recommended in American Society for Testing and Materials standard test method E399-83 for metals. It was established that fracture toughness increases with decreasing temperature and increasing volumetric ice content. For a temperature of 5°C, the fracture toughness of frozen crushed stone increased almost linearly from 0.05 to 0.40 MPa·m0.5 when the volumetric ice content increased from 6 to 14%. For frozen sand, the fracture toughness KIC in a wedge-opening mode increased from 0.04 to 0.70 MPa·m0.5 when the volumetric ice content increased from 8 to 28%. It w...
The Canadian geotechnical engineering community has completed a major collaborative 5 year resear... more The Canadian geotechnical engineering community has completed a major collaborative 5 year research project entitled the Canadian Liquefaction Experiment (CANLEX). The main objective of the project was to study the phenomenon of soil liquefaction, which can occur in saturated sandy soils and is characterized by a large loss of strength or stiffness resulting in substantial deformations. The intent of this paper is to compare, interpret, and summarize the large amount of field and laboratory data obtained for six sites in Western Canada as part of the CANLEX project. The sites are compared in terms of both flow-liquefaction and cyclic-softening considerations. The paper presents a number of conclusions drawn from the project as a whole, in terms of both fundamental and practical significance.Key words: sand, flow liquefaction, cyclic softening, CANLEX.
The accumulation of snow at the ground surface significantly influences heat transfer between soi... more The accumulation of snow at the ground surface significantly influences heat transfer between soil and atmosphere due to its fairly low thermal conductivity compared to natural soils. The thermal conductivity of snow varies mostly with density, but also with crystalline structure and grain to grain contact. Human activities such as winter maintenance may also lead to dramatic changes in the snow properties. Compacted snow accumulated on the side of any infrastructure is much denser than fresh snow and conducts heat more easily. The aim of this paper is to study the thermal conductivity of compacted snow and to develop a suitable thermal conductivity model. The thermal conductivity values obtained in this study varies from 0.12 W/mK and 0.54 W/mK for porosities from 0.4 to 0.68 and for a temperature of -12°C. The semi-empirical thermal conductivity model developed for 2-phase porous materials by Cote and Konrad has been adapted to model the thermal conductivity of compacted snow. This model uses a single empirical parameter κ 2p to account for porosity and structure effects (thermal conductivity ratio between the solid phase and the fluid phase). The analysis results showed that the model successfully described the experimental data within the experimental range of porosity while respecting the physical limits of thermal conductivity of air and ice. Since temperature affects the thermal conductivity ratio between ice and air, the model proved to handle very well effect of temperature for other data of compacted snow from the literature. The very good agreement between the values of the κ 2p parameter found for this study and for data from the literature helped develop a simple means to account for temperature effects on the thermal conductivity of compacted snow.
Generally, heat transfer in soils is governed by conduction. In rock-fill materials, however, the... more Generally, heat transfer in soils is governed by conduction. In rock-fill materials, however, the pore sizes are large enough to promote heat convection from the motion of air under pressure gradient (forced convection) or temperature gradient (natural convection). It has been found that convection significantly influences the heat transfer in rock-fill embankments such as railways, roadways and embankment dam in cold regions. The material characteristics that influence the most the rate of convection heat transfer is the intrinsic permeability. In a previous study, Cote et al. (2011a) developed a heat transfer cell where natural convection conditions were applied to 1 m³ rock-fill samples in order to establish their intrinsic permeability. They analysed the experimental data using an analytical relationship between the Nusselt number (Nu) and the Rayleigh number (Ra). This theoretical relationship is valid for perfectly insulated and impervious 2-dimensional square enclosure. As shown by the deviation from intrinsic permeability models for porous materials, the use of the theoretical relationship as induces a bias in the experimental intrinsic permeability values. In this paper, the heat transfer within the actual experimental heat transfer cell is analysed using numerical modelling of natural convection allowing to account for heat transfer in and out the imperfectly insulated cubic cell. A new Nu-Ra relationship is developed for this experimental setup. The previous experimental data are re-analysed according this Nu-Ra relationship in order to establish more accurate intrinsic permeability for values for the studied rock-fill materials. The results are compared to existing permeability models.
Suffusion is one of the main internal erosion processes in earth structures and their foundations... more Suffusion is one of the main internal erosion processes in earth structures and their foundations. The assessment of this phenomenon can be difficult since in-situ geotechnical properties of soils are variable and uncertain. By means of a case study, this paper aims at presenting a general method to assess the suffusion potential of compacted impervious cores of zoned embankment dams. First, the suffusion susceptibility of the compacted layers forming the analysed dam core is estimated from four soil parameters that can be easily measured in situ or in laboratory during construction. Second, the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the compacted layers is evaluated based on the amount of fines content and on available construction data. Moreover, the power dissipated by seepage flow is inferred based on the saturated hydraulic conductivity and simplified fluid boundary conditions. Finally, the combined consideration of erosion resistance index and dissipated energy allows the identification of zones characterized by a relatively larger suffusion potential.
Compacted tills are widely use as cores of embankment dams in northern Quebec. It is expected tha... more Compacted tills are widely use as cores of embankment dams in northern Quebec. It is expected that placement method in successive layers may result in a permeability anisotropy (rK) different from unity. A new cubic permeameter was designed to obtain the permeability ratio on the same sample. A special testing procedure was developed to limit seepage trough the inactive porous stones, i.e. the porous stones parallel to the seepage flow. Bovine gelatin, solid at temperatures less than 30 °C was used and proved to be highly efficient in sealing the inactive porous elements. Heating at 60 °C allows to remove the liquid gelatin without the need of dismantling the cell. A new percolation test can then be conducted on the same sample but in a different direction. Preliminary tests on a compacted glacial till have shown that the hydraulic conductivity values compared well to those obtained from tests using a flexible wall permeameter. The k anisotropy was found close to unity, which was al...
The behavior of roadways depends on many parameters generally not well known, particularly in are... more The behavior of roadways depends on many parameters generally not well known, particularly in areas in which climatic conditions are severe in winter. Two road sections have been instrumented to understand how frost and thaw actions are related to climate and the availability of water. Field data monitored by a dedicated data acquisition system were used to measure air temperature, thermal soil conditions, frost heave, total stress, and bearing capacity by the Benkelman beam test. The results show that automatic monitoring improves the ability to detect short thaw events during freezing. Furthermore, accurate knowledge of air temperatures and the thermal conditions of the soil are useful in the interpretation of bearing capacity measurements with the Benkelman beam test.
A simple, yet complete framework is introduced with the aim of modelling grain breakage in soils ... more A simple, yet complete framework is introduced with the aim of modelling grain breakage in soils and crushable granular materials. The evolution of grain breakage is measured using a specific parameter of the grain-size distribution. The evolution of this new breakage parameter is related to the applied mechanical work, which allows the predictions to be independent of the stress paths. The correlation function proposed is trilinear, and is capable of describing the initiation, development, and stabilization of breakage. The initial state, coupled with three additional parameters, is used to calibrate this function. The three parameters are related to a grain specific quantity representing the strength of the particles that form the granular medium. The theory of fractal fragmentation is adopted, and the final state is considered to be unique and described by a single parameter: the fractal dimension. When tested against experimental results, this model was able to correctly predict...
A one-dimensional model for the consolidation of thawing soils is formulated in terms of large-st... more A one-dimensional model for the consolidation of thawing soils is formulated in terms of large-strain consolidation and heat-transfer equations. The model integrates heat transfer due to conduction, phase change, and advection. The hydromechanical behaviour is modelled by large-strain consolidation theory. The equations are coupled in a moving boundary scheme developed in Lagrangian coordinates. Finite strains are allowed and nonlinear effective stress – void ratio – hydraulic conductivity relationships are proposed to characterize the thawing soil properties. Initial conditions and boundary conditions are presented with special consideration for the moving boundary condition at the thaw front developed in terms of large-strain consolidation. The proposed model is applied and compared with small-strain thaw consolidation theory in a theoretical working example of a thawing fine-grained soil sample. The modelling results are presented in terms of temperature, thaw penetration, settle...
In this study, employing a database of 19 concrete face rockfill dam (CFRD) cases, two prediction... more In this study, employing a database of 19 concrete face rockfill dam (CFRD) cases, two prediction methods for post-construction settlement of CFRDs are presented. In the first method, post-construction settlements are estimated using height of the embankment. In the second method, characterization of the stress–strain behavior of the compacted rockfill layers during construction allows prediction of the subsequent stress–strain–time behavior of the embankment. Knowledge of rock particles strength is necessary in both methods. In the presented methods, settlements are estimated separately for each of the three life-cycle phases: before, during, and after impoundment. The presented results show that, in addition to addressing some limitations of previous methods, the proposed approach is precise and highly practical. It also allows a better understanding of rockfill deformation mechanisms. Apart from using this method for predictive purposes, the presented graphs can be used to distin...
AbstractThe mechanical behavior of the interface between gravelly soils and structures may play a... more AbstractThe mechanical behavior of the interface between gravelly soils and structures may play a significant role on the response of many soil-structure systems to loading. Under cyclic excursion ...
Several studies can be found in the literature in which deformations of different rockfill dams a... more Several studies can be found in the literature in which deformations of different rockfill dams are presented and compared. However, this fact is often neglected that these deformations take place during three main phases in lifetime of a rockfill dam: construction, impoundment and operation. Correspondingly, few concentrated studies are done on the long-term deformations, i.e., during operation period of rockfill dams. In this paper, the factors that influence the time-dependent behavior of rockfill dams are reviewed according to the past studies. The field observations are compared to the results of the experimental works and justified with existing theories about rockfill compression. Finally, a new approach for prediction of the long-term deformations of rockfill dams is introduced.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 2005
The forward modeling of the dispersion curve of a layered medium calculated from the spectral cha... more The forward modeling of the dispersion curve of a layered medium calculated from the spectral characteristics of Rayleigh waves requires an efficient algorithm for predicting the surface displacements of the medium under a dynamic load. The usual methods for solving the wave equation are based on matrix methods prone to numerical problem or yielding to the determination of complex modes that are difficult to interpret. A modified linearized stiffness matrix method is proposed in this technical note to solve the discrete stiffness matrix. The developed algorithm is based on a finite element equation associating each surface wave mode to the resonant frequency of a structure with a stiffness depending on the wavelength. The filtering of complex wave modes to keep only suitable surface waves is avoided. Furthermore, the mesh design is based on the actual wavelength of each mode providing a better representation of higher modes. The new algorithm is validated with two irregular stiffness profiles.
Abstract Frost heave tests on overconsolidated clayey silt specimens have been conducted with and... more Abstract Frost heave tests on overconsolidated clayey silt specimens have been conducted with and without applied back-pressure. Frost heave characteristics are, at first approximation, independent upon the magnitude of applied back-pressure provided that the unfrozen soil remains saturated. For the soil studied the critical suction at which desaturation occurs is about 40 kPa. Pore pressures were also measured in the unfrozen soil during freezing. The experimental results confirm steady state flow conditions in overconsolidated soil specimen seven during the early stage of freezing. However, suctions in excess of 100 kPa can be generated at the frost front depending upon the freezing conditions. This, in turn, may lead to desaturation of the unfrozen soil near the frost front and render the analysis of a frost heave test even more complex. It is suggested to conduct frost heave test using a back-pressure equal to the hydrostatic pressure in the field and with a value of suction at the frost front close to that in the field in order to assess the relevant segregation potential.
The thermal conductivity of bitumen concrete is a key parameter in the thermal analysis of paveme... more The thermal conductivity of bitumen concrete is a key parameter in the thermal analysis of pavements submitted to widely varying climate conditions. This paper presents the experimental results of thermal conductivity of bitumen concrete typically used in the Province of Quebec. The results show that the thermal conductivity of bitumen concrete is dependent on the aggregate's mineral origin and on the amount of air voids. It is also shown that the presence of bitumen increases thermal conductivity compared to unbound aggregates. The paper demonstrates that the effect of bitumen creates thermal bridges between aggregate particles similarly to other types of binders such as Portland cement and natural binders found in sedimentary rocks. Based on these observations and on the analyses of over 80 data sets from the literature, an existing model is used to develop a simplified thermal conductivity equation to estimate this parameter for bitumen concrete.
Temperature distribution in the pavement structure, moisture distribution in granular soils, modu... more Temperature distribution in the pavement structure, moisture distribution in granular soils, modulus of the asphalt concrete, and fracture toughness of material in the pavement structure strongly influence the propagation and spacing of thermal contraction cracks. Fracture toughness was determined for frozen sand (subbase layer) and frozen crushed stone (base layer) by adapting established fracture mechanics test procedures recommended in American Society for Testing and Materials standard test method E399-83 for metals. It was established that fracture toughness increases with decreasing temperature and increasing volumetric ice content. For a temperature of 5°C, the fracture toughness of frozen crushed stone increased almost linearly from 0.05 to 0.40 MPa·m0.5 when the volumetric ice content increased from 6 to 14%. For frozen sand, the fracture toughness KIC in a wedge-opening mode increased from 0.04 to 0.70 MPa·m0.5 when the volumetric ice content increased from 8 to 28%. It w...
The Canadian geotechnical engineering community has completed a major collaborative 5 year resear... more The Canadian geotechnical engineering community has completed a major collaborative 5 year research project entitled the Canadian Liquefaction Experiment (CANLEX). The main objective of the project was to study the phenomenon of soil liquefaction, which can occur in saturated sandy soils and is characterized by a large loss of strength or stiffness resulting in substantial deformations. The intent of this paper is to compare, interpret, and summarize the large amount of field and laboratory data obtained for six sites in Western Canada as part of the CANLEX project. The sites are compared in terms of both flow-liquefaction and cyclic-softening considerations. The paper presents a number of conclusions drawn from the project as a whole, in terms of both fundamental and practical significance.Key words: sand, flow liquefaction, cyclic softening, CANLEX.
Uploads