Background and Aim: African horse sickness (AHS) has become a newly emerging disease after an out... more Background and Aim: African horse sickness (AHS) has become a newly emerging disease after an outbreak in northeastern Thailand in March 2020. Mass vaccination in horses with live-attenuated AHS virus (AHSV) vaccine is essential for AHS control and prevention. This study aimed to monitor the longitudinal humoral immune response before and after a single vaccination using a live-attenuated vaccine against AHS in stallions, mares, and pregnant mares, including maternal immunity in foals born from pregnant mares during the outbreak in Thailand. Materials and Methods: A total of 13 stallions and 23 non-pregnant and 21 pregnant mares were vaccinated with live-attenuated AHSV vaccines. Serum samples from selected horses were collected on the day of vaccination and 1, 6, 8, 9, 10, and 12-months post-vaccination. Furthermore, seven serum samples of foals born from vaccinated pregnant mares were collected on parturition date and 1, 3, and 6-months old. The antibody titer against AHS in all c...
ABSTRACT. Scallop shell powder produced by calcination process − the average diameter of the powd... more ABSTRACT. Scallop shell powder produced by calcination process − the average diameter of the powder particles being 20 µm (SSP) − was further ground into nano-sized particles, with average diameter of 500 nm, here designated CaO-Nano. Solution of CaO-Nano could inactivate avian influenza virus within 5 sec, whereas the solution of SSP could not even after 1 hr incubation. CaO-Nano solution could also inactivate Newcastle disease virus and goose parvovirus within 5 sec and 30 sec, respectively. The virus-inactivating capacity (neutralizing index: NI>3) of the solution was not reduced by the presence of 20 % fetal bovine serum. CaO-Nano solution seems to be a good candidate of materials for enhancement of biosecurity in farms. KEY WORDS: biosecurity, nano-sized scallop shell powder, virus inactivation doi: 10.1292/jvms.14-0158; J. Vet. Med. Sci. 76(9): 1277–1280, 2014 Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is one of the most serious diseases in the poultry industry. Vaccinations ...
The aim of present study was to evaluate the immunological response of 3 difference Infectious bu... more The aim of present study was to evaluate the immunological response of 3 difference Infectious bursal disease (IBD) vaccines in broiler chickens, even with high maternal derived antibody level. One thousand and two hundreds1-day-old broilers were divided into 4 groups. The chickens in the first group were unvaccinated with any IBD vaccine. The chickens in the second were vaccinated by the use of live attenuated vaccine Winterfield 2512 strain in drinking water at 2-week-old. The chickens in the third and fourth groups were vaccinated with live immune complex and recombinant vaccines by subcutaneous injection at 1-day-old, respectively. Chicken blood samples were collected at 1-day-old chick, once a week after vaccination and weekly until slaughtering. Subsequently, IBD antibody titer levels were measured by using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. The chickens were vaccinated with both live immune complex-, as well as recombinant-vaccinated showed statistically signif...
Background and Aim: The immune responses of animals infected with African horse sickness (AHS) vi... more Background and Aim: The immune responses of animals infected with African horse sickness (AHS) virus are determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), complement fixation, and virus neutralization test. During the outbreaks of AHS in Thailand, the immune response after vaccination has been monitored using commercial test kits such as blocking ELISA, which are expensive imported products unavailable commercially in Thailand. This study aimed to assess the sensitivity and specificity of anti-AHS virus antibodies using dot blotting based on monovalent and polyvalent strains of live attenuated AHS vaccine. Materials and Methods: A total of 186 horse sera, namely, 93 AHS-unvaccinated samples and 93 AHS-vaccinated samples, were used in this study. All sera underwent antibodies detection using commercial blocking ELISA and in-house dot blotting based on monovalent and polyvalent strains of live attenuated AHS vaccine. The numbers of true positive, false positive, true negative, ...
The first outbreak of Newcastle disease (ND) in ostrich was reported in zoo birds in the 1950s. D... more The first outbreak of Newcastle disease (ND) in ostrich was reported in zoo birds in the 1950s. During 1989-1990, ND was found in commercial ostriches in Israel and Southern Africa which cause of the disease spread from commercial domestic fowl. The latter outbreaks were particular concern due to the expending of international trade in ostriches and the contamination of ND in their products. The rate of spreading ND in ostriches between flock to flick is normally slow. The morbidity and mortality were seen varied considerably with age. In infected young birds were appeared severe clinical sign such as nervous sings on the other hand in infected adult birds might show only mild or absent clinical signs. Normally isolated ND viruses in ostriches have been related with isolated from domestic fowl especially commercial chicken or back yard chicken. ND vaccine for chicken was employed for ostriches, the both live and killed vaccine could be applied, and the results of protection after ch...
Introduction Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a markedly contagious viral disease of d... more Introduction Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a markedly contagious viral disease of domestic chickens and turkeys, characterized by severe illness with high morbidity and mortality (Easterday et al. 1997). Human infections with the HPAI virus H5N1 frequently cause death since 1997 (Class et al., 1998, Subbarao et al., 1998). Two surface glycoproteins, the haemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) form the basis of antigenic subtyping of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) (Wright and Webster, 2001). Currently sixteen HA plus nine NA subtypes have thereby been classified, thus far (Fouchier et al. 2005). In response to continuing outbreak of avian influenza worldwide since the end of 2003, many countries strengthen surveillance studies in wild birds for early detection of avian influenza virus (AIV). To screen large number of samples rapidly, reliably, sensitively and specifically, an appropriate diagnostic test is a prime prerequisite. Different diagnostic tools are availabl...
This experiment aims to demonstrate the efficacy of ceramic powder derived from various sources t... more This experiment aims to demonstrate the efficacy of ceramic powder derived from various sources to inactivate avian influenza virus and its possibility to use in the environment. The ceramics used in the present experiment were derived from chicken feces (CF), scallop shell (SS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and soybean (SB). All ceramics were mixed with low pathogenic AIV (LPAIV) H7N1, and then kept at room temperature. The recovered virus was titrated onto Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. All ceramics were assessed the inactivation stability in the environment by keeping under sunlight and under wet-dry condition until reached 7 week or 7 resuspension times respectively. The results indicate that all ceramics have excellent efficacy to inactivate LPAIV. This efficacy can be maintained under the simulated condition. The ceramics are expected to be the good materials for application in the biosecurity system at farms. Keywords—Avian Influenza, Ceramics, Efficacy, Stability.
Background and Aim: The selection and proper application of disinfectants are crucial to the prev... more Background and Aim: The selection and proper application of disinfectants are crucial to the prevention of many diseases, so disinfectants must be evaluated before being used for the prevention of African swine fever (ASF). Three disinfectant products belonging to the group of potassium hydrogen peroxymonosulfates, product A and product B, and a quaternary ammonium compound called product C, were examined in vitro for host cell cytotoxicity and the efficacy of ASF virus inactivation. The study parameters included various concentrations, exposure times, temperatures, and degrees of cytotoxicity. Materials and Methods: Three disinfectant products were evaluated for cytotoxicity using primary porcine alveolar macrophage (PAM) cells at dilutions from 1:200 to 1:51,200. Disinfectants in concentrations of 1:200, 1:400, and 1:800 were prepared, the pH and the virucidal activity were tested. An equal volume of each dilution was mixed with the ASF virus and incubated at room temperature (20°...
Background and Aim: The concentration of serum progesterone is commonly used to determine the opt... more Background and Aim: The concentration of serum progesterone is commonly used to determine the optimal mating time in bitches, and to diagnose reproductive-related abnormalities. This study aims to compare the serum progesterone results obtained by rapid fluorescence immunochromatography assay (RFICA) with those obtained by chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay (CMIA) from the same serum samples to develop a standard guideline for optimal breeding time. Materials and Methods: Serum progesterone levels were measured in 124 bitches using RFICA and CMIA. Simple linear regression and correlation analyses were performed to analyze the data. The percentage difference between the maximum and minimum progesterone values in the same serum sample in the same assay was compared using Wilcoxon's rank-sum test. Results: The present study showed a strong linear dependence of the results obtained by RFICA on those obtained by CMIA as R2=0.8976, with regression coefficient of 0.9474 and p&l...
Aim: The present study was examined the virucidal activity comparison between fresh charcoal ash ... more Aim: The present study was examined the virucidal activity comparison between fresh charcoal ash (FCA) and slaked lime (SL) against avian influenza virus (AIV) and Newcastle disease virus (NDV), using powder and liquid forms, either in the absence or presence of organic materials. In addition, both FCA and SL were evaluated for the persistence of virucidal activity in wet and dry conditions and stability of the solution. Materials and Methods: Two hundred milligrams of FCA or SL powders were mixed with 100 μl of AIV or NDV in the absence of organic material or 33% of organic materials. In the same time, 400 μl of 1%, 5%, or 10% solution samples were mixed with 100 μl of each virus and then incubated at room temperature for an indicated time. After that, the mixed solution was stop activity of sample using 500 μl of 1M Tris-HCl pH 7.2. Each treatment was titrated onto Madin-Darby canine kidney cells or chicken embryo fibroblasts for AIV or NDV, respectively, for determining the effic...
The Journal of veterinary medical science, Jan 18, 2018
An acidic agent, potassium monopersulfate (PMPS), was evaluated for bactericidal and virucidal ef... more An acidic agent, potassium monopersulfate (PMPS), was evaluated for bactericidal and virucidal effects against Salmonella Infantis (SI), Escherichia coli, rifampicin-resistant Salmonella Infantis (SI-rif), Newcastle disease virus (NDV), and avian influenza virus (AIV), in the absence or presence of organic materials. In addition, inactivation activity toward a virus on virus-spiked clothes was also examined. PMPS could inactivate SI, E. coli, and SI-rif even in the presence of organic materials under various concentrations and exposure/contact time conditions. PMPS could also inactivate NDV and AIV. In addition, PMPS could inactivate AIV on a virus-spiked rayon sheet. In conclusion, the present study showed that PMPS has good antimicrobial properties against SI, E. coli, SI-rif, NDV, and AIV when used at the optimal dosage and exposure timing. These results suggest that PMPS could be used as an alternative disinfectant for biosecurity enhancement in animal farms or hospitals.
The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the fourth-generation quaternary ammo... more The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the fourth-generation quaternary ammonium compounds, didecyl dimethyl ammonium bromide (DDAB), on the efficacy of bacterial and viral decontamination against pathogens commonly found in livestock industry including infantis (SI), , and avian influenza virus (AIV). The DDAB was prepared at 500, 250, and 125 parts per million (ppm) for absent and present organic material. Meanwhile, 5% of fetal bovine serum in DDAB solution sample was used to mimic the presence of organic material contamination. 400 µl of each DDAB concentration was mixed with 100 µl of each pathogen (SI, , and AIV) and then incubated at room temperature or 4°C at various time points (5 s, 30 s, 1 min, 5 min, 10 min, 15 min, and 30 min). The activity of DDAB treatment was stopped using 500 µl of FBS. Each treatment sample was titrated on either deoxycholate hydrogen sulfide lactose agar plates or Madin-Darby canine kidney cells for bacteria and AIV, respectiv...
An alkaline agent, namely, food additive grade calcium hydroxide (FdCa(OH)2) in the solution, pow... more An alkaline agent, namely, food additive grade calcium hydroxide (FdCa(OH)2) in the solution, powder and suspension forms was evaluated as a virucidal agent, using a murine norovirus (MNV) as the surrogate for human norovirus. The main constituent of FdCa(OH)2 is Ca(OH)2, which has pH 13 in 0.17% solution. The results showed that 0.17% FdCa(OH)2 solution could inactivate MNV within 30s even in the presence of organic materials (5% fetal bovine serum (FBS)). In a contaminated surface experiment, MNV with 5% FBS was inoculated on rayon sheets, and the result showed FdCa(OH)2 solution could markedly reduce virus titer within 1min. When mouse feces were spiked with MNV and FdCa(OH)2 powder as 10% and 20% w/w was added to the feces, these concentrations could inactivate the virus within 30min and 15min, respectively. Whereas, FdCa(OH)2 suspension at 2.5% and 5% could inactivate the virus within 30min and at 1% within 45min. These and additional results obtained here indicate that FdCa(OH...
Background and Aim: African horse sickness (AHS) has become a newly emerging disease after an out... more Background and Aim: African horse sickness (AHS) has become a newly emerging disease after an outbreak in northeastern Thailand in March 2020. Mass vaccination in horses with live-attenuated AHS virus (AHSV) vaccine is essential for AHS control and prevention. This study aimed to monitor the longitudinal humoral immune response before and after a single vaccination using a live-attenuated vaccine against AHS in stallions, mares, and pregnant mares, including maternal immunity in foals born from pregnant mares during the outbreak in Thailand. Materials and Methods: A total of 13 stallions and 23 non-pregnant and 21 pregnant mares were vaccinated with live-attenuated AHSV vaccines. Serum samples from selected horses were collected on the day of vaccination and 1, 6, 8, 9, 10, and 12-months post-vaccination. Furthermore, seven serum samples of foals born from vaccinated pregnant mares were collected on parturition date and 1, 3, and 6-months old. The antibody titer against AHS in all c...
ABSTRACT. Scallop shell powder produced by calcination process − the average diameter of the powd... more ABSTRACT. Scallop shell powder produced by calcination process − the average diameter of the powder particles being 20 µm (SSP) − was further ground into nano-sized particles, with average diameter of 500 nm, here designated CaO-Nano. Solution of CaO-Nano could inactivate avian influenza virus within 5 sec, whereas the solution of SSP could not even after 1 hr incubation. CaO-Nano solution could also inactivate Newcastle disease virus and goose parvovirus within 5 sec and 30 sec, respectively. The virus-inactivating capacity (neutralizing index: NI>3) of the solution was not reduced by the presence of 20 % fetal bovine serum. CaO-Nano solution seems to be a good candidate of materials for enhancement of biosecurity in farms. KEY WORDS: biosecurity, nano-sized scallop shell powder, virus inactivation doi: 10.1292/jvms.14-0158; J. Vet. Med. Sci. 76(9): 1277–1280, 2014 Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is one of the most serious diseases in the poultry industry. Vaccinations ...
The aim of present study was to evaluate the immunological response of 3 difference Infectious bu... more The aim of present study was to evaluate the immunological response of 3 difference Infectious bursal disease (IBD) vaccines in broiler chickens, even with high maternal derived antibody level. One thousand and two hundreds1-day-old broilers were divided into 4 groups. The chickens in the first group were unvaccinated with any IBD vaccine. The chickens in the second were vaccinated by the use of live attenuated vaccine Winterfield 2512 strain in drinking water at 2-week-old. The chickens in the third and fourth groups were vaccinated with live immune complex and recombinant vaccines by subcutaneous injection at 1-day-old, respectively. Chicken blood samples were collected at 1-day-old chick, once a week after vaccination and weekly until slaughtering. Subsequently, IBD antibody titer levels were measured by using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. The chickens were vaccinated with both live immune complex-, as well as recombinant-vaccinated showed statistically signif...
Background and Aim: The immune responses of animals infected with African horse sickness (AHS) vi... more Background and Aim: The immune responses of animals infected with African horse sickness (AHS) virus are determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), complement fixation, and virus neutralization test. During the outbreaks of AHS in Thailand, the immune response after vaccination has been monitored using commercial test kits such as blocking ELISA, which are expensive imported products unavailable commercially in Thailand. This study aimed to assess the sensitivity and specificity of anti-AHS virus antibodies using dot blotting based on monovalent and polyvalent strains of live attenuated AHS vaccine. Materials and Methods: A total of 186 horse sera, namely, 93 AHS-unvaccinated samples and 93 AHS-vaccinated samples, were used in this study. All sera underwent antibodies detection using commercial blocking ELISA and in-house dot blotting based on monovalent and polyvalent strains of live attenuated AHS vaccine. The numbers of true positive, false positive, true negative, ...
The first outbreak of Newcastle disease (ND) in ostrich was reported in zoo birds in the 1950s. D... more The first outbreak of Newcastle disease (ND) in ostrich was reported in zoo birds in the 1950s. During 1989-1990, ND was found in commercial ostriches in Israel and Southern Africa which cause of the disease spread from commercial domestic fowl. The latter outbreaks were particular concern due to the expending of international trade in ostriches and the contamination of ND in their products. The rate of spreading ND in ostriches between flock to flick is normally slow. The morbidity and mortality were seen varied considerably with age. In infected young birds were appeared severe clinical sign such as nervous sings on the other hand in infected adult birds might show only mild or absent clinical signs. Normally isolated ND viruses in ostriches have been related with isolated from domestic fowl especially commercial chicken or back yard chicken. ND vaccine for chicken was employed for ostriches, the both live and killed vaccine could be applied, and the results of protection after ch...
Introduction Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a markedly contagious viral disease of d... more Introduction Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a markedly contagious viral disease of domestic chickens and turkeys, characterized by severe illness with high morbidity and mortality (Easterday et al. 1997). Human infections with the HPAI virus H5N1 frequently cause death since 1997 (Class et al., 1998, Subbarao et al., 1998). Two surface glycoproteins, the haemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) form the basis of antigenic subtyping of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) (Wright and Webster, 2001). Currently sixteen HA plus nine NA subtypes have thereby been classified, thus far (Fouchier et al. 2005). In response to continuing outbreak of avian influenza worldwide since the end of 2003, many countries strengthen surveillance studies in wild birds for early detection of avian influenza virus (AIV). To screen large number of samples rapidly, reliably, sensitively and specifically, an appropriate diagnostic test is a prime prerequisite. Different diagnostic tools are availabl...
This experiment aims to demonstrate the efficacy of ceramic powder derived from various sources t... more This experiment aims to demonstrate the efficacy of ceramic powder derived from various sources to inactivate avian influenza virus and its possibility to use in the environment. The ceramics used in the present experiment were derived from chicken feces (CF), scallop shell (SS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and soybean (SB). All ceramics were mixed with low pathogenic AIV (LPAIV) H7N1, and then kept at room temperature. The recovered virus was titrated onto Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. All ceramics were assessed the inactivation stability in the environment by keeping under sunlight and under wet-dry condition until reached 7 week or 7 resuspension times respectively. The results indicate that all ceramics have excellent efficacy to inactivate LPAIV. This efficacy can be maintained under the simulated condition. The ceramics are expected to be the good materials for application in the biosecurity system at farms. Keywords—Avian Influenza, Ceramics, Efficacy, Stability.
Background and Aim: The selection and proper application of disinfectants are crucial to the prev... more Background and Aim: The selection and proper application of disinfectants are crucial to the prevention of many diseases, so disinfectants must be evaluated before being used for the prevention of African swine fever (ASF). Three disinfectant products belonging to the group of potassium hydrogen peroxymonosulfates, product A and product B, and a quaternary ammonium compound called product C, were examined in vitro for host cell cytotoxicity and the efficacy of ASF virus inactivation. The study parameters included various concentrations, exposure times, temperatures, and degrees of cytotoxicity. Materials and Methods: Three disinfectant products were evaluated for cytotoxicity using primary porcine alveolar macrophage (PAM) cells at dilutions from 1:200 to 1:51,200. Disinfectants in concentrations of 1:200, 1:400, and 1:800 were prepared, the pH and the virucidal activity were tested. An equal volume of each dilution was mixed with the ASF virus and incubated at room temperature (20°...
Background and Aim: The concentration of serum progesterone is commonly used to determine the opt... more Background and Aim: The concentration of serum progesterone is commonly used to determine the optimal mating time in bitches, and to diagnose reproductive-related abnormalities. This study aims to compare the serum progesterone results obtained by rapid fluorescence immunochromatography assay (RFICA) with those obtained by chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay (CMIA) from the same serum samples to develop a standard guideline for optimal breeding time. Materials and Methods: Serum progesterone levels were measured in 124 bitches using RFICA and CMIA. Simple linear regression and correlation analyses were performed to analyze the data. The percentage difference between the maximum and minimum progesterone values in the same serum sample in the same assay was compared using Wilcoxon's rank-sum test. Results: The present study showed a strong linear dependence of the results obtained by RFICA on those obtained by CMIA as R2=0.8976, with regression coefficient of 0.9474 and p&l...
Aim: The present study was examined the virucidal activity comparison between fresh charcoal ash ... more Aim: The present study was examined the virucidal activity comparison between fresh charcoal ash (FCA) and slaked lime (SL) against avian influenza virus (AIV) and Newcastle disease virus (NDV), using powder and liquid forms, either in the absence or presence of organic materials. In addition, both FCA and SL were evaluated for the persistence of virucidal activity in wet and dry conditions and stability of the solution. Materials and Methods: Two hundred milligrams of FCA or SL powders were mixed with 100 μl of AIV or NDV in the absence of organic material or 33% of organic materials. In the same time, 400 μl of 1%, 5%, or 10% solution samples were mixed with 100 μl of each virus and then incubated at room temperature for an indicated time. After that, the mixed solution was stop activity of sample using 500 μl of 1M Tris-HCl pH 7.2. Each treatment was titrated onto Madin-Darby canine kidney cells or chicken embryo fibroblasts for AIV or NDV, respectively, for determining the effic...
The Journal of veterinary medical science, Jan 18, 2018
An acidic agent, potassium monopersulfate (PMPS), was evaluated for bactericidal and virucidal ef... more An acidic agent, potassium monopersulfate (PMPS), was evaluated for bactericidal and virucidal effects against Salmonella Infantis (SI), Escherichia coli, rifampicin-resistant Salmonella Infantis (SI-rif), Newcastle disease virus (NDV), and avian influenza virus (AIV), in the absence or presence of organic materials. In addition, inactivation activity toward a virus on virus-spiked clothes was also examined. PMPS could inactivate SI, E. coli, and SI-rif even in the presence of organic materials under various concentrations and exposure/contact time conditions. PMPS could also inactivate NDV and AIV. In addition, PMPS could inactivate AIV on a virus-spiked rayon sheet. In conclusion, the present study showed that PMPS has good antimicrobial properties against SI, E. coli, SI-rif, NDV, and AIV when used at the optimal dosage and exposure timing. These results suggest that PMPS could be used as an alternative disinfectant for biosecurity enhancement in animal farms or hospitals.
The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the fourth-generation quaternary ammo... more The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the fourth-generation quaternary ammonium compounds, didecyl dimethyl ammonium bromide (DDAB), on the efficacy of bacterial and viral decontamination against pathogens commonly found in livestock industry including infantis (SI), , and avian influenza virus (AIV). The DDAB was prepared at 500, 250, and 125 parts per million (ppm) for absent and present organic material. Meanwhile, 5% of fetal bovine serum in DDAB solution sample was used to mimic the presence of organic material contamination. 400 µl of each DDAB concentration was mixed with 100 µl of each pathogen (SI, , and AIV) and then incubated at room temperature or 4°C at various time points (5 s, 30 s, 1 min, 5 min, 10 min, 15 min, and 30 min). The activity of DDAB treatment was stopped using 500 µl of FBS. Each treatment sample was titrated on either deoxycholate hydrogen sulfide lactose agar plates or Madin-Darby canine kidney cells for bacteria and AIV, respectiv...
An alkaline agent, namely, food additive grade calcium hydroxide (FdCa(OH)2) in the solution, pow... more An alkaline agent, namely, food additive grade calcium hydroxide (FdCa(OH)2) in the solution, powder and suspension forms was evaluated as a virucidal agent, using a murine norovirus (MNV) as the surrogate for human norovirus. The main constituent of FdCa(OH)2 is Ca(OH)2, which has pH 13 in 0.17% solution. The results showed that 0.17% FdCa(OH)2 solution could inactivate MNV within 30s even in the presence of organic materials (5% fetal bovine serum (FBS)). In a contaminated surface experiment, MNV with 5% FBS was inoculated on rayon sheets, and the result showed FdCa(OH)2 solution could markedly reduce virus titer within 1min. When mouse feces were spiked with MNV and FdCa(OH)2 powder as 10% and 20% w/w was added to the feces, these concentrations could inactivate the virus within 30min and 15min, respectively. Whereas, FdCa(OH)2 suspension at 2.5% and 5% could inactivate the virus within 30min and at 1% within 45min. These and additional results obtained here indicate that FdCa(OH...
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