The practice of resilient agri-food systems, especially in arid and semi-arid areas, is considere... more The practice of resilient agri-food systems, especially in arid and semi-arid areas, is considered key to attaining sustainable livelihoods. Changes in climatic conditions have forced small-scale farmers to develop adaptive capacities related to food security. This study was done in Nguni ward Kitui County involving 246 small-scale farmers, two focus groups discussion, and four key informants. The sampled participants had practiced resilient agri-food systems for the last five years from the time of data collection. A gender dynamic was established after 71.5% of the respondents were found to be female and 28.5% male. More females practiced resilient agri-food systems but did not own productive assets like land. A statistically significant relationship between resilient agri-food systems and household livelihood outcomes was determined where the probability value was less at a 95% confidence level (0.01<0.05). Further analysis showed a positive association between household incom...
Error! Bookmark not defined. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background Information 1 1.2 Stateme... more Error! Bookmark not defined. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background Information 1 1.2 Statement of Problem 2 1.3 Justification 2 1.4 Research Questions 3 1.5 Null Hypothesis 4 1.6 Objectives 4 1.6.1 General Objective 4 1.6.2 Specific Objectives 4 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 5 2.1 Rift Valley Fever Virus 5 2.2 Epidemiology of RVF 6 2.3 Geographic distribution of RVF 7 2.4 Pathogenesis of RVF 8 2.4.1 Pathology of RVF in humans 8
Background Multiple recent outbreaks of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) in Africa, Madagascar, and the Ar... more Background Multiple recent outbreaks of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) in Africa, Madagascar, and the Arabian Peninsula have resulted in significant morbidity, mortality, and financial loss due to related livestock epizootics. Presentation of human RVF varies from mild febrile illness to meningo-encephalitis, hemorrhagic diathesis, and/or ophthalmitis with residual retinal scarring, but the determinants for severe disease are not understood. The aim of the present study was to identify human genes associated with RVF clinical disease in a high-risk population in Northeastern Province, Kenya. Methodology/Principal Findings We conducted a cross-sectional survey among residents (N = 1,080; 1–85 yrs) in 6 villages in the Sangailu Division of Ijara District. Participants completed questionnaires on past symptoms and exposures, physical exam, vision testing, and blood collection. Single nucle-otide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping was performed on a subset of individuals who re-ported past clinical...
Background Mosquito-borne Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes acute, often severe, disease in l... more Background Mosquito-borne Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes acute, often severe, disease in live-stock and humans. To determine the exposure factors and range of symptoms associated with human RVF, we performed a population-based cross-sectional survey in six villages across a 40 km transect in northeastern Kenya. Methodology/Principal Findings: Methodology/Principal Findings: A systematic survey of the total populations of six North-eastern Kenyan villages was performed. Among 1082 residents tested via anti-RVFV IgG ELISA, seroprevalence was 15 % (CI95%, 13–17%). Prevalence did not vary significantly among villages. Subject age was a significant factor, with 31 % (154/498) of adults seroposi-tive vs. only 2 % of children15 years (12/583). Seroprevalence was higher among men (18%) than women (13%). Factors associated with seropositivity included a history of ani-mal exposure, non-focal fever symptoms, symptoms related to meningoencephalitis, and eye symptoms. Using cluster analy...
that causes periodic outbreaks of animal and human disease in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. O... more that causes periodic outbreaks of animal and human disease in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. On the basis of its many competent vectors, its potential for aerosol transmission, and its progressive spread from East Africa to neighboring regions between 1950 and 2000, RVFV is ranked as a high-priority, emerging health threat for humans, livestock, and wildlife in all parts of the world. Rift Valley fever virus is typically maintained by vertical transmission among floodwater Aedes species. Most often, local virus propagation is reactivated as these mosquitoes emerge from temporary ponds (dambos) formed by heavy rainfall in enzootic/endemic areas. 1 Successive mosquito breeding near amplifying domestic livestock (cattle, goats, or sheep) allows for local intensification of exposure by bridge vectors such as Culex. Because livestock miscarriage and mortality rates
Most outbreaks of Rift Valley fever (RVF) occur in remote locations after fl oods. To determine e... more Most outbreaks of Rift Valley fever (RVF) occur in remote locations after fl oods. To determine environmental risk factors and long-term sequelae of human RVF, we examined rates of previous Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) exposure by age and location during an interepidemic period in 2006. In a randomized household cluster survey in 2 areas of Ijara District, Kenya, we examined 248 residents of 2 sublocations, Gumarey (village) and Sogan-Godud (town). Overall, the RVFV seropositivity rate was 13 % according to immunoglobulin G ELISA; evidence of interepidemic RVFV transmission was detected. Increased seropositivity was found among older persons, those who were male, those who lived in the rural village (Gumarey), and those who had disposed of animal abortus. Rural Gumarey reported more mosquito and animal exposure than Sogan-Godud. Seropositive persons were more likely to have visual impairment and retinal lesions; other physical fi ndings did not differ. Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a...
<p>The country map, left, indicates the boundaries of Ijara District, the health administra... more <p>The country map, left, indicates the boundaries of Ijara District, the health administration unit at the time of the study (the Sangailu location is now part of Garissa County, Ijara constituency). The inset, right, shows the locations of the six community clusters that were included in the study. These were distributed in a 40 km transect along a main road of the Sangailu area.</p
<p>Shown are traditional wicker and grass-mat domed houses and outbuildings, surrounded by ... more <p>Shown are traditional wicker and grass-mat domed houses and outbuildings, surrounded by a planted compound perimeter and local dense brush vegetation.</p
The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, Jan 12, 2015
In this cross-sectional seroepidemiological study we sought to examine the evidence for circulati... more In this cross-sectional seroepidemiological study we sought to examine the evidence for circulation of Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) among herders in Madagascar and Kenya. From July 2010 to June 2012, we enrolled 459 herders and 98 controls (without ruminant exposures) and studied their sera (immunoglobulin G [IgG] and IgM through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay [ELISA] and plaque reduction neutralization test [PRNT] assays) for evidence of previous RVFV infection. Overall, 59 (12.9%) of 459 herders and seven (7.1%) of the 98 controls were positive by the IgG ELISA assay. Of the 59 ELISA-positive herders, 23 (38.9%) were confirmed by the PRNT assay (21 from eastern Kenya). Two of the 21 PRNT-positive study subjects also had elevated IgM antibodies against RVFV suggesting recent infection. Multivariate modeling in this study revealed that being seminomadic (odds ratio [OR] = 6.4, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.1-15.4) was most strongly associated with antibodies against RVFV. Al...
Background: Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes an acute, mosquito-borne viral disease in lives... more Background: Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes an acute, mosquito-borne viral disease in livestock and humans. To determine the exposure factors and range of disease symptoms associated with human RVF, we performed a household cluster survey in six villages in Northeastern Kenya in 2011. Methods: We performed a household cluster survey in six villages in Northeastern Kenya in 2011. 1081 participants were tested via anti-RVFV IgG ELISA. Results: 1081 participants were tested via anti-RVFV IgG ELISA, yielding 16% seroprevalence (95% C.I. 0.1-0.2). No significant differences were found among villages. 31% (154/498) of adults were seropositive vs. 3% of children (≤15 years; 17/583). With each additional year of age, participants were 5% more likely to be seropositive (95% C.I. 1.0-1.1). Documentation of a 3y/o seropositive boy confirmed interepidemic transmission. Males were 2.6 times more likely to be seropositive (p<0.001; 95% C.I. 1.7-3.8); herders were 1.7 times more likely (p...
Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association, 1997
The number of salivary gland malaria sporozoites (sporozoite load) was determined by hemacytomete... more The number of salivary gland malaria sporozoites (sporozoite load) was determined by hemacytometer counts for 2,055 field-collected Anopheles mosquitoes from Kilifi District, Kenya. Of 48 gland-positive Anopheles gambiae s.l., sporozoite loads ranged from 125 to 79,875, with a geometric mean of 1,743 sporozoites per infected mosquito. About half of the infected mosquitoes had sporozoite loads < 1,000. Following hemacytometer examination of salivary gland samples, the same samples were subsequently tested for Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite (CS) protein by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The confirmation by ELISA of CS protein in 89.6% (43/48) of the salivary gland-positive samples compared to only 1.4% (28/2,007) of the dissection-negative mosquitoes indicated that dissection methods with hemacytometer counts of sporozoites were adequate for detecting even low numbers of sporozoites in field-collected mosquitoes. Detection of 17 or fewer sporozoites in blood mea...
Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association, 1993
Blood meal samples were tested by ELISA for 534 Anopheles gambiae s.l. and 76 Anopheles funestus ... more Blood meal samples were tested by ELISA for 534 Anopheles gambiae s.l. and 76 Anopheles funestus collected from 25 sites in Kilifi District, Kenya. Human IgG was detected in 94.4% of the An. gambiae s.l. and in 90.8% of the An. funestus. No samples were positive for cow and only a few were positive for goat. Both species fed predominantly on humans irrespective of host availability. At these sites on the Kenyan coast, the high degree of human-feeding by malaria vectors contributes to the efficiency of malaria parasite transmission and the high incidence of severe malaria.
Multiple recent outbreaks of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) in Africa, Madagascar, and the Arabian Penin... more Multiple recent outbreaks of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) in Africa, Madagascar, and the Arabian Peninsula have resulted in significant morbidity, mortality, and financial loss due to related livestock epizootics. Presentation of human RVF varies from mild febrile illness to meningoencephalitis, hemorrhagic diathesis, and/or ophthalmitis with residual retinal scarring, but the determinants for severe disease are not understood. The aim of the present study was to identify human genes associated with RVF clinical disease in a high-risk population in Northeastern Province, Kenya. We conducted a cross-sectional survey among residents (N = 1,080; 1-85 yrs) in 6 villages in the Sangailu Division of Ijara District. Participants completed questionnaires on past symptoms and exposures, physical exam, vision testing, and blood collection. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping was performed on a subset of individuals who reported past clinical symptoms consistent with RVF and unrelated s...
Mosquito-borne Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes acute, often severe, disease in livestock an... more Mosquito-borne Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes acute, often severe, disease in livestock and humans. To determine the exposure factors and range of symptoms associated with human RVF, we performed a population-based cross-sectional survey in six villages across a 40 km transect in northeastern Kenya. A systematic survey of the total populations of six Northeastern Kenyan villages was performed. Among 1082 residents tested via anti-RVFV IgG ELISA, seroprevalence was 15% (CI95%, 13-17%). Prevalence did not vary significantly among villages. Subject age was a significant factor, with 31% (154/498) of adults seropositive vs. only 2% of children ≤15 years (12/583). Seroprevalence was higher among men (18%) than women (13%). Factors associated with seropositivity included a history of animal exposure, non-focal fever symptoms, symptoms related to meningoencephalitis, and eye symptoms. Using cluster analysis in RVFV positive participants, a more severe symptom phenotype was empirical...
The use of insecticides to eliminate mosquito larvae from ground pools may disrupt atural predato... more The use of insecticides to eliminate mosquito larvae from ground pools may disrupt atural predator-induced control of mosquito larvae. Detrimental effects on predators may be directly from toxicity or by eliminating prey organisms. Identifying the principal predators responsible for mosquito suppression is needed to select non-target indicator species for insecticide studies. In this study, we sought to determine trophic level interactions between predators and immature stages of Anopheles gambiae Giles mosquitoes under experimental conditions in the coastal region of Kenya. To identify effective predation pattern, a series of prey choice experiments was conducted. The relative abilities of five common species of aquatic insects found in the malaria-endemic coastal region of Kenya were assessed in a series of experiments. Experiments were conducted in semi-field conditions at Jaribuni, near the sites of insect collection. In single predator experiments, notonectids consumed most of ...
The practice of resilient agri-food systems, especially in arid and semi-arid areas, is considere... more The practice of resilient agri-food systems, especially in arid and semi-arid areas, is considered key to attaining sustainable livelihoods. Changes in climatic conditions have forced small-scale farmers to develop adaptive capacities related to food security. This study was done in Nguni ward Kitui County involving 246 small-scale farmers, two focus groups discussion, and four key informants. The sampled participants had practiced resilient agri-food systems for the last five years from the time of data collection. A gender dynamic was established after 71.5% of the respondents were found to be female and 28.5% male. More females practiced resilient agri-food systems but did not own productive assets like land. A statistically significant relationship between resilient agri-food systems and household livelihood outcomes was determined where the probability value was less at a 95% confidence level (0.01<0.05). Further analysis showed a positive association between household incom...
Error! Bookmark not defined. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background Information 1 1.2 Stateme... more Error! Bookmark not defined. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background Information 1 1.2 Statement of Problem 2 1.3 Justification 2 1.4 Research Questions 3 1.5 Null Hypothesis 4 1.6 Objectives 4 1.6.1 General Objective 4 1.6.2 Specific Objectives 4 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 5 2.1 Rift Valley Fever Virus 5 2.2 Epidemiology of RVF 6 2.3 Geographic distribution of RVF 7 2.4 Pathogenesis of RVF 8 2.4.1 Pathology of RVF in humans 8
Background Multiple recent outbreaks of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) in Africa, Madagascar, and the Ar... more Background Multiple recent outbreaks of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) in Africa, Madagascar, and the Arabian Peninsula have resulted in significant morbidity, mortality, and financial loss due to related livestock epizootics. Presentation of human RVF varies from mild febrile illness to meningo-encephalitis, hemorrhagic diathesis, and/or ophthalmitis with residual retinal scarring, but the determinants for severe disease are not understood. The aim of the present study was to identify human genes associated with RVF clinical disease in a high-risk population in Northeastern Province, Kenya. Methodology/Principal Findings We conducted a cross-sectional survey among residents (N = 1,080; 1–85 yrs) in 6 villages in the Sangailu Division of Ijara District. Participants completed questionnaires on past symptoms and exposures, physical exam, vision testing, and blood collection. Single nucle-otide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping was performed on a subset of individuals who re-ported past clinical...
Background Mosquito-borne Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes acute, often severe, disease in l... more Background Mosquito-borne Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes acute, often severe, disease in live-stock and humans. To determine the exposure factors and range of symptoms associated with human RVF, we performed a population-based cross-sectional survey in six villages across a 40 km transect in northeastern Kenya. Methodology/Principal Findings: Methodology/Principal Findings: A systematic survey of the total populations of six North-eastern Kenyan villages was performed. Among 1082 residents tested via anti-RVFV IgG ELISA, seroprevalence was 15 % (CI95%, 13–17%). Prevalence did not vary significantly among villages. Subject age was a significant factor, with 31 % (154/498) of adults seroposi-tive vs. only 2 % of children15 years (12/583). Seroprevalence was higher among men (18%) than women (13%). Factors associated with seropositivity included a history of ani-mal exposure, non-focal fever symptoms, symptoms related to meningoencephalitis, and eye symptoms. Using cluster analy...
that causes periodic outbreaks of animal and human disease in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. O... more that causes periodic outbreaks of animal and human disease in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. On the basis of its many competent vectors, its potential for aerosol transmission, and its progressive spread from East Africa to neighboring regions between 1950 and 2000, RVFV is ranked as a high-priority, emerging health threat for humans, livestock, and wildlife in all parts of the world. Rift Valley fever virus is typically maintained by vertical transmission among floodwater Aedes species. Most often, local virus propagation is reactivated as these mosquitoes emerge from temporary ponds (dambos) formed by heavy rainfall in enzootic/endemic areas. 1 Successive mosquito breeding near amplifying domestic livestock (cattle, goats, or sheep) allows for local intensification of exposure by bridge vectors such as Culex. Because livestock miscarriage and mortality rates
Most outbreaks of Rift Valley fever (RVF) occur in remote locations after fl oods. To determine e... more Most outbreaks of Rift Valley fever (RVF) occur in remote locations after fl oods. To determine environmental risk factors and long-term sequelae of human RVF, we examined rates of previous Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) exposure by age and location during an interepidemic period in 2006. In a randomized household cluster survey in 2 areas of Ijara District, Kenya, we examined 248 residents of 2 sublocations, Gumarey (village) and Sogan-Godud (town). Overall, the RVFV seropositivity rate was 13 % according to immunoglobulin G ELISA; evidence of interepidemic RVFV transmission was detected. Increased seropositivity was found among older persons, those who were male, those who lived in the rural village (Gumarey), and those who had disposed of animal abortus. Rural Gumarey reported more mosquito and animal exposure than Sogan-Godud. Seropositive persons were more likely to have visual impairment and retinal lesions; other physical fi ndings did not differ. Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a...
<p>The country map, left, indicates the boundaries of Ijara District, the health administra... more <p>The country map, left, indicates the boundaries of Ijara District, the health administration unit at the time of the study (the Sangailu location is now part of Garissa County, Ijara constituency). The inset, right, shows the locations of the six community clusters that were included in the study. These were distributed in a 40 km transect along a main road of the Sangailu area.</p
<p>Shown are traditional wicker and grass-mat domed houses and outbuildings, surrounded by ... more <p>Shown are traditional wicker and grass-mat domed houses and outbuildings, surrounded by a planted compound perimeter and local dense brush vegetation.</p
The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, Jan 12, 2015
In this cross-sectional seroepidemiological study we sought to examine the evidence for circulati... more In this cross-sectional seroepidemiological study we sought to examine the evidence for circulation of Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) among herders in Madagascar and Kenya. From July 2010 to June 2012, we enrolled 459 herders and 98 controls (without ruminant exposures) and studied their sera (immunoglobulin G [IgG] and IgM through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay [ELISA] and plaque reduction neutralization test [PRNT] assays) for evidence of previous RVFV infection. Overall, 59 (12.9%) of 459 herders and seven (7.1%) of the 98 controls were positive by the IgG ELISA assay. Of the 59 ELISA-positive herders, 23 (38.9%) were confirmed by the PRNT assay (21 from eastern Kenya). Two of the 21 PRNT-positive study subjects also had elevated IgM antibodies against RVFV suggesting recent infection. Multivariate modeling in this study revealed that being seminomadic (odds ratio [OR] = 6.4, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.1-15.4) was most strongly associated with antibodies against RVFV. Al...
Background: Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes an acute, mosquito-borne viral disease in lives... more Background: Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes an acute, mosquito-borne viral disease in livestock and humans. To determine the exposure factors and range of disease symptoms associated with human RVF, we performed a household cluster survey in six villages in Northeastern Kenya in 2011. Methods: We performed a household cluster survey in six villages in Northeastern Kenya in 2011. 1081 participants were tested via anti-RVFV IgG ELISA. Results: 1081 participants were tested via anti-RVFV IgG ELISA, yielding 16% seroprevalence (95% C.I. 0.1-0.2). No significant differences were found among villages. 31% (154/498) of adults were seropositive vs. 3% of children (≤15 years; 17/583). With each additional year of age, participants were 5% more likely to be seropositive (95% C.I. 1.0-1.1). Documentation of a 3y/o seropositive boy confirmed interepidemic transmission. Males were 2.6 times more likely to be seropositive (p<0.001; 95% C.I. 1.7-3.8); herders were 1.7 times more likely (p...
Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association, 1997
The number of salivary gland malaria sporozoites (sporozoite load) was determined by hemacytomete... more The number of salivary gland malaria sporozoites (sporozoite load) was determined by hemacytometer counts for 2,055 field-collected Anopheles mosquitoes from Kilifi District, Kenya. Of 48 gland-positive Anopheles gambiae s.l., sporozoite loads ranged from 125 to 79,875, with a geometric mean of 1,743 sporozoites per infected mosquito. About half of the infected mosquitoes had sporozoite loads < 1,000. Following hemacytometer examination of salivary gland samples, the same samples were subsequently tested for Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite (CS) protein by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The confirmation by ELISA of CS protein in 89.6% (43/48) of the salivary gland-positive samples compared to only 1.4% (28/2,007) of the dissection-negative mosquitoes indicated that dissection methods with hemacytometer counts of sporozoites were adequate for detecting even low numbers of sporozoites in field-collected mosquitoes. Detection of 17 or fewer sporozoites in blood mea...
Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association, 1993
Blood meal samples were tested by ELISA for 534 Anopheles gambiae s.l. and 76 Anopheles funestus ... more Blood meal samples were tested by ELISA for 534 Anopheles gambiae s.l. and 76 Anopheles funestus collected from 25 sites in Kilifi District, Kenya. Human IgG was detected in 94.4% of the An. gambiae s.l. and in 90.8% of the An. funestus. No samples were positive for cow and only a few were positive for goat. Both species fed predominantly on humans irrespective of host availability. At these sites on the Kenyan coast, the high degree of human-feeding by malaria vectors contributes to the efficiency of malaria parasite transmission and the high incidence of severe malaria.
Multiple recent outbreaks of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) in Africa, Madagascar, and the Arabian Penin... more Multiple recent outbreaks of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) in Africa, Madagascar, and the Arabian Peninsula have resulted in significant morbidity, mortality, and financial loss due to related livestock epizootics. Presentation of human RVF varies from mild febrile illness to meningoencephalitis, hemorrhagic diathesis, and/or ophthalmitis with residual retinal scarring, but the determinants for severe disease are not understood. The aim of the present study was to identify human genes associated with RVF clinical disease in a high-risk population in Northeastern Province, Kenya. We conducted a cross-sectional survey among residents (N = 1,080; 1-85 yrs) in 6 villages in the Sangailu Division of Ijara District. Participants completed questionnaires on past symptoms and exposures, physical exam, vision testing, and blood collection. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping was performed on a subset of individuals who reported past clinical symptoms consistent with RVF and unrelated s...
Mosquito-borne Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes acute, often severe, disease in livestock an... more Mosquito-borne Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes acute, often severe, disease in livestock and humans. To determine the exposure factors and range of symptoms associated with human RVF, we performed a population-based cross-sectional survey in six villages across a 40 km transect in northeastern Kenya. A systematic survey of the total populations of six Northeastern Kenyan villages was performed. Among 1082 residents tested via anti-RVFV IgG ELISA, seroprevalence was 15% (CI95%, 13-17%). Prevalence did not vary significantly among villages. Subject age was a significant factor, with 31% (154/498) of adults seropositive vs. only 2% of children ≤15 years (12/583). Seroprevalence was higher among men (18%) than women (13%). Factors associated with seropositivity included a history of animal exposure, non-focal fever symptoms, symptoms related to meningoencephalitis, and eye symptoms. Using cluster analysis in RVFV positive participants, a more severe symptom phenotype was empirical...
The use of insecticides to eliminate mosquito larvae from ground pools may disrupt atural predato... more The use of insecticides to eliminate mosquito larvae from ground pools may disrupt atural predator-induced control of mosquito larvae. Detrimental effects on predators may be directly from toxicity or by eliminating prey organisms. Identifying the principal predators responsible for mosquito suppression is needed to select non-target indicator species for insecticide studies. In this study, we sought to determine trophic level interactions between predators and immature stages of Anopheles gambiae Giles mosquitoes under experimental conditions in the coastal region of Kenya. To identify effective predation pattern, a series of prey choice experiments was conducted. The relative abilities of five common species of aquatic insects found in the malaria-endemic coastal region of Kenya were assessed in a series of experiments. Experiments were conducted in semi-field conditions at Jaribuni, near the sites of insect collection. In single predator experiments, notonectids consumed most of ...
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Papers by Samuel Muiruri