The paint materials and techniques of The Descent from Cross, a panel painting attributed to the ... more The paint materials and techniques of The Descent from Cross, a panel painting attributed to the Portuguese painter Francisco João (act. 1558–1595), were investigated with a combination of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared imaging and an analysis of paint samples with microscopic, spectroscopic, and chromatographic techniques. The colour palette is composed of lead white, lead–tin yellow, minium, vermilion, ochres of different colours, umber, smalt, azurite, verdigris, charcoal black, and a variety of different-coloured red lakes made of brazilwood and cochineal. An oil-based medium was identified. The characterisation of the pigment mixtures, paint build-up, and particular paint handling techniques enabled us to determine their role in the style and formal appearance of this painting and to discuss Portuguese painting practices in the larger context of 16th-century European painting. Mineral and elemental associations or impurities in the blue pigments, as well as degradation issu...
The examination with infrared reflectography of the Annunciation and the Adoration of the Shepher... more The examination with infrared reflectography of the Annunciation and the Adoration of the Shepherds, two panels from a dismembered altarpiece attributed to the mannerist painter Francisco João (doc. 1558–1595), revealed the first documented example in Portuguese painting of the overlapping of two underdrawing layouts, each with a different subject, in a single panel painting. The paintings were examined under visible radiation and infrared reflectography was used to investigate the underdrawing in terms of the materials, graphic layout and function. Results from a previous study on the ground layers and underdrawing materials of these paintings, obtained with the analysis of micro-samples with microscopic and spectroscopic techniques, were used in the context of this research. Infrared images revealed that the underdrawing of the Annunciation mostly corresponded to the painted image but that two subjects — Annunciation and Adoration — were drawn over the prepared surface of the panel depicting the Adoration. This discovery is the first example of this procedure in Portuguese painting. The comparison with a third panel attributed to the painter, depicting another version of the Annunciation, allowed for the discussion of relevant technical procedures such as the use of cartoons, the responsibility for each main stage of painting creation and the reality of labour conditions in a regional market. The results contributed with material evidence to the scarce information of archival nature about the working methods of Portuguese mannerist painters.
The painting The Descent from the Cross, painted in 1620 by Pedro Nunes (1586–1637), presents two... more The painting The Descent from the Cross, painted in 1620 by Pedro Nunes (1586–1637), presents two large figures with orange-coloured fabrics with conservation problems. Through the analysis of two samples with several analytical techniques, especially scanning electron microscopy combined with X-ray spectroscopy and Raman microscopy, it was possible to conclude that the orange colour is due to a complex artificial pigment made of amorphous arsenic sulphide. It essentially consists of spherical particles obtained by sublimation and condensation, possibly from orpiment, which ended up being joined with irregularly shaped particles resulting from crushing of the residual fraction obtained by solidification and fusion. This is a rare documented case of the extensive use of artificial arsenic sulphides in European easel painting, especially outside Italy. The conservation problems can be explained by the great sensitivity of the arsenic sulphides to photodegradation and the formation of ...
This research focuses on the application of microanalytical techniques to the material analysis a... more This research focuses on the application of microanalytical techniques to the material analysis and technical study of the preparation´s of twenty-one easel paintings attributed to the Frei Carlos workshop, one of the most important Portuguese-Flemish painters, active between 1517 and 1539-1540. The study of the work attributed to Espinheiro´s workshop began with the macroscopic observation of the paintings and area exams. The analytical study was based primarily on the identification of inorganic and organic materials that compose these preparatory layers by optical microscopy (OM), FTIR-μ e SEMEDS. This study aims to establish a new perspective of the Espinheiro´s workshop by the relationship between the nature of the preparations (2 types of preparation: calcium sulfate and calcium carbonate) and its relationship to European techniques of artistic productio
This paper focuses on a collection of reliquary busts integrated in the reliquary sanctuary of Ma... more This paper focuses on a collection of reliquary busts integrated in the reliquary sanctuary of Madre de Deus Convent. It explores the ARCAer project which will address this set through its historical, stylistic and iconological study. It will include laboratory analysis of the materials and technologies associated with the production of the sculptures with the intend of establishing affinities and differences between the several objects, which may bring clarification about their origins, their ordering process and the conservation treatment of the set. It is intended to recover the works and relocate them in their original places, resuming an integrated discourse that was lost. Also, the project aims to reflect upon the human drive to preserve material memories, establishing parallels with our days
Reconstructions were used as a tool to investigate the use of charcoal and black stone as underdr... more Reconstructions were used as a tool to investigate the use of charcoal and black stone as underdrawing materials in sixteenth century panel paintings with white or off-white preparatory layers. Research was based on the examination of a group of sixteenth century panel paintings by the Portuguese Mannerist painter Francisco João (doc. 1558–1595) and his workshop. Analysis of the original underdrawing material in cross-sections, using microscopic and spectroscopic techniques was not always conclusive. Based on materials thought to be employed by Francisco João and on data collected from sixteenth and seventeenth century European technical treatises along with published analytical studies of panel paintings with white or off-white preparatory layers from this period, reconstructions were performed using charcoal (untreated and oiled—as described in contemporary literature) and natural black stone over different preparatory surfaces. Microscopic analyses of cross-sections from reconstr...
This paper unveils for the first time the technical and material features of the mural painting e... more This paper unveils for the first time the technical and material features of the mural painting entitled Pentecost’s, executed by the Portuguese artist Julio Resende in 1955. The painting depicting twelve Apostles covers the altarpiece of a small church in the countryside of Évora (southern Portugal) and it was rediscovered in 2013 by art historians. The research was carried out with both non-invasive and micro-destructive techniques. In situ examination included technical photography in visible (Vis/Vis-RAK) and in infrared (NIR) light range, ultraviolet induced visible fluorescence (UVF), portable optical microscopy, visible spectrophotometry and handheld energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (hXRF). Further analysis on paint layers micro-samples were undertaken by dark field optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDS) and micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (μ-FTIR). According to the acqui...
A diachronic, multi-analytical approach combining EDXRF, µFTIR, µRaman, SEM-EDS, and Py-GC/MS has... more A diachronic, multi-analytical approach combining EDXRF, µFTIR, µRaman, SEM-EDS, and Py-GC/MS has been adopted with the aim to study for the first time the painting materials used to decorate Egyptian funerary masks and sarcophagi ranging from the Late Period to the Roman Period and stored in the Archaeological National Museum (MNA) and the Carmo Archaeological Museum (MAC) of Lisbon and the Natural History Museum of the University in Oporto (MNH-FCUP). Results indicate that yellow and red ochres, realgar, cinnabar, Egyptian blue, and Egyptian green were used as pigments while chalk served as the preparatory layer. Over the 1000-year timeline of the studied artifacts, the palette remained remarkably consistent with previous findings as exemplified by cinnabar being used for red pigments in samples only dated after the Ptolemaic period. The presence of Sn in Egyptian blue and Egyptian green pigments used in one sample suggests the use of recycled bronze scraps during pigment producti...
Goa Cathedral former altarpiece, attributed to Garcia Fernandes and made around 1538, is one of t... more Goa Cathedral former altarpiece, attributed to Garcia Fernandes and made around 1538, is one of the oldest western pictorial works in India. It is a work of great importance in the establishment of the conquest of Goa by the Portuguese but also for understanding the influence of Portuguese painting overseas. Goa Cathedral former altarpiece is revealed as a crucial study source of Garcia Fernandes' creative process. There is evidence in the vigorous underdrawing of these paintings, of the existence of different types of drawing, as well as abandoned iconographic themes, or formal alterations of compositions. The iconographic and stylistic study evidences north and south-European influences in the choice and representation of the themes around the Martírio de Santa Catarina. In the present study, this work is compared in the making of the underdrawing with other works attributed to Garcia Fernandes.
The paint materials and techniques of The Descent from Cross, a panel painting attributed to the ... more The paint materials and techniques of The Descent from Cross, a panel painting attributed to the Portuguese painter Francisco João (act. 1558–1595), were investigated with a combination of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared imaging and an analysis of paint samples with microscopic, spectroscopic, and chromatographic techniques. The colour palette is composed of lead white, lead–tin yellow, minium, vermilion, ochres of different colours, umber, smalt, azurite, verdigris, charcoal black, and a variety of different-coloured red lakes made of brazilwood and cochineal. An oil-based medium was identified. The characterisation of the pigment mixtures, paint build-up, and particular paint handling techniques enabled us to determine their role in the style and formal appearance of this painting and to discuss Portuguese painting practices in the larger context of 16th-century European painting. Mineral and elemental associations or impurities in the blue pigments, as well as degradation issu...
The examination with infrared reflectography of the Annunciation and the Adoration of the Shepher... more The examination with infrared reflectography of the Annunciation and the Adoration of the Shepherds, two panels from a dismembered altarpiece attributed to the mannerist painter Francisco João (doc. 1558–1595), revealed the first documented example in Portuguese painting of the overlapping of two underdrawing layouts, each with a different subject, in a single panel painting. The paintings were examined under visible radiation and infrared reflectography was used to investigate the underdrawing in terms of the materials, graphic layout and function. Results from a previous study on the ground layers and underdrawing materials of these paintings, obtained with the analysis of micro-samples with microscopic and spectroscopic techniques, were used in the context of this research. Infrared images revealed that the underdrawing of the Annunciation mostly corresponded to the painted image but that two subjects — Annunciation and Adoration — were drawn over the prepared surface of the panel depicting the Adoration. This discovery is the first example of this procedure in Portuguese painting. The comparison with a third panel attributed to the painter, depicting another version of the Annunciation, allowed for the discussion of relevant technical procedures such as the use of cartoons, the responsibility for each main stage of painting creation and the reality of labour conditions in a regional market. The results contributed with material evidence to the scarce information of archival nature about the working methods of Portuguese mannerist painters.
The painting The Descent from the Cross, painted in 1620 by Pedro Nunes (1586–1637), presents two... more The painting The Descent from the Cross, painted in 1620 by Pedro Nunes (1586–1637), presents two large figures with orange-coloured fabrics with conservation problems. Through the analysis of two samples with several analytical techniques, especially scanning electron microscopy combined with X-ray spectroscopy and Raman microscopy, it was possible to conclude that the orange colour is due to a complex artificial pigment made of amorphous arsenic sulphide. It essentially consists of spherical particles obtained by sublimation and condensation, possibly from orpiment, which ended up being joined with irregularly shaped particles resulting from crushing of the residual fraction obtained by solidification and fusion. This is a rare documented case of the extensive use of artificial arsenic sulphides in European easel painting, especially outside Italy. The conservation problems can be explained by the great sensitivity of the arsenic sulphides to photodegradation and the formation of ...
This research focuses on the application of microanalytical techniques to the material analysis a... more This research focuses on the application of microanalytical techniques to the material analysis and technical study of the preparation´s of twenty-one easel paintings attributed to the Frei Carlos workshop, one of the most important Portuguese-Flemish painters, active between 1517 and 1539-1540. The study of the work attributed to Espinheiro´s workshop began with the macroscopic observation of the paintings and area exams. The analytical study was based primarily on the identification of inorganic and organic materials that compose these preparatory layers by optical microscopy (OM), FTIR-μ e SEMEDS. This study aims to establish a new perspective of the Espinheiro´s workshop by the relationship between the nature of the preparations (2 types of preparation: calcium sulfate and calcium carbonate) and its relationship to European techniques of artistic productio
This paper focuses on a collection of reliquary busts integrated in the reliquary sanctuary of Ma... more This paper focuses on a collection of reliquary busts integrated in the reliquary sanctuary of Madre de Deus Convent. It explores the ARCAer project which will address this set through its historical, stylistic and iconological study. It will include laboratory analysis of the materials and technologies associated with the production of the sculptures with the intend of establishing affinities and differences between the several objects, which may bring clarification about their origins, their ordering process and the conservation treatment of the set. It is intended to recover the works and relocate them in their original places, resuming an integrated discourse that was lost. Also, the project aims to reflect upon the human drive to preserve material memories, establishing parallels with our days
Reconstructions were used as a tool to investigate the use of charcoal and black stone as underdr... more Reconstructions were used as a tool to investigate the use of charcoal and black stone as underdrawing materials in sixteenth century panel paintings with white or off-white preparatory layers. Research was based on the examination of a group of sixteenth century panel paintings by the Portuguese Mannerist painter Francisco João (doc. 1558–1595) and his workshop. Analysis of the original underdrawing material in cross-sections, using microscopic and spectroscopic techniques was not always conclusive. Based on materials thought to be employed by Francisco João and on data collected from sixteenth and seventeenth century European technical treatises along with published analytical studies of panel paintings with white or off-white preparatory layers from this period, reconstructions were performed using charcoal (untreated and oiled—as described in contemporary literature) and natural black stone over different preparatory surfaces. Microscopic analyses of cross-sections from reconstr...
This paper unveils for the first time the technical and material features of the mural painting e... more This paper unveils for the first time the technical and material features of the mural painting entitled Pentecost’s, executed by the Portuguese artist Julio Resende in 1955. The painting depicting twelve Apostles covers the altarpiece of a small church in the countryside of Évora (southern Portugal) and it was rediscovered in 2013 by art historians. The research was carried out with both non-invasive and micro-destructive techniques. In situ examination included technical photography in visible (Vis/Vis-RAK) and in infrared (NIR) light range, ultraviolet induced visible fluorescence (UVF), portable optical microscopy, visible spectrophotometry and handheld energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (hXRF). Further analysis on paint layers micro-samples were undertaken by dark field optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDS) and micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (μ-FTIR). According to the acqui...
A diachronic, multi-analytical approach combining EDXRF, µFTIR, µRaman, SEM-EDS, and Py-GC/MS has... more A diachronic, multi-analytical approach combining EDXRF, µFTIR, µRaman, SEM-EDS, and Py-GC/MS has been adopted with the aim to study for the first time the painting materials used to decorate Egyptian funerary masks and sarcophagi ranging from the Late Period to the Roman Period and stored in the Archaeological National Museum (MNA) and the Carmo Archaeological Museum (MAC) of Lisbon and the Natural History Museum of the University in Oporto (MNH-FCUP). Results indicate that yellow and red ochres, realgar, cinnabar, Egyptian blue, and Egyptian green were used as pigments while chalk served as the preparatory layer. Over the 1000-year timeline of the studied artifacts, the palette remained remarkably consistent with previous findings as exemplified by cinnabar being used for red pigments in samples only dated after the Ptolemaic period. The presence of Sn in Egyptian blue and Egyptian green pigments used in one sample suggests the use of recycled bronze scraps during pigment producti...
Goa Cathedral former altarpiece, attributed to Garcia Fernandes and made around 1538, is one of t... more Goa Cathedral former altarpiece, attributed to Garcia Fernandes and made around 1538, is one of the oldest western pictorial works in India. It is a work of great importance in the establishment of the conquest of Goa by the Portuguese but also for understanding the influence of Portuguese painting overseas. Goa Cathedral former altarpiece is revealed as a crucial study source of Garcia Fernandes' creative process. There is evidence in the vigorous underdrawing of these paintings, of the existence of different types of drawing, as well as abandoned iconographic themes, or formal alterations of compositions. The iconographic and stylistic study evidences north and south-European influences in the choice and representation of the themes around the Martírio de Santa Catarina. In the present study, this work is compared in the making of the underdrawing with other works attributed to Garcia Fernandes.
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Papers by Sara Sofia Galhano Valadas