2015 7th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering (NER), 2015
Interfacing with the nervous system to restore functional motor activity is a promising therapy t... more Interfacing with the nervous system to restore functional motor activity is a promising therapy to augment the classical surgical approaches to treating peripheral nerve injuries. Despite the advances in electrode microelectronics engineering, the challenge of extracting information from injured nerves to help restore motor function remains unsolved. Here we used waveform feature extraction and clustering techniques to identify a discrete set of events in intraneural recordings of the median nerve in a non-human primate (NHP) during grasping tasks. This analysis allowed the classification of the different phases of hand grasping. The waveform features were found to be significantly different for each phase of grasping. Since these waveforms can be seen as the minimal signal components that result from the activation of a group of nerve fibers, we denominated them miniature compound nerve action potentials (mCNAPs). The correlation between mCNAPs and the different stages of movement can be utilized in the near future to design high-performance neuroprosthetic therapies.
2014 IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS) Proceedings, 2014
Restoration of motor function in cases of peripheral nerve injury is a challenging problem. Altho... more Restoration of motor function in cases of peripheral nerve injury is a challenging problem. Although peripheral nerves do regenerate, the time required for peripheral nerves to regenerate often causes atrophy to occur in the muscles before they can be re-innervated. This paper presents a solution through proximal recording of nerve signals and distal muscle stimulation. A fully implantable hardware architecture is described that can be operated by means of inductive power and MICS band data transmission schemes. Preliminary experiments and validation studies are reported with non-human primates based on recordings in the median nerve, stimulation of hand muscles, and task decoding and classification. This approach shows promise in creating a neural prosthesis capable of restoring hand movements in patients with upper limb peripheral nerve injuries.
2014 36th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2014
Neuroprosthetic devices that interface with the nervous system to restore functional motor activi... more Neuroprosthetic devices that interface with the nervous system to restore functional motor activity offer a viable alternative to nerve regeneration, especially in proximal nerve injuries like brachial plexus injuries where muscle atrophy may set in before nerve re-innervation occurs. Prior studies have used control signals from muscle or cortical activity. However, nerve signals are preferred in many cases since they permit more natural and precise control when compared to muscle activity, and can be accessed with much lower risk than cortical activity. Identification of nerve signals that control the appropriate muscles is essential for the development of such a `bionic link'. Here we examine the correlation between muscle and nerve signals responsible for hand grasping in the M. fascicularis. Simultaneous recordings were performed using a 4-channel thin-film longitudinal intra-fascicular electrode (tf-LIFE) and 9 bipolar endomysial muscle electrodes while the animal performed grasping movements. We were able to identify a high degree of correlation (r > 0.6) between nerve signals from the median nerve and movement-dependent muscle activity from the flexor muscles of the forearm, with a delay that corresponded to 25 m/s nerve conduction velocity. The phase of the flexion could be identified using a wavelet approximation of the ENG. This result confirms this approach for a future neu-roprosthetic device for the treatment of peripheral nerve injuries.
2015 7th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering (NER), 2015
Thin-film longitudinal intrafascicular electrodes (tf-LIFE) are widely used for peripheral nerve ... more Thin-film longitudinal intrafascicular electrodes (tf-LIFE) are widely used for peripheral nerve recordings. tf-LIFEs are also promising electrodes for neural signal acquisition in future peripheral nerve prostheses. However, common mode signal interference, and electrical artifacts originating from long wire leads and wire movement are known problems encountered when using such electrodes, which lead to degradation in the recording quality. Here, we report an active tf-LIFE electrode implemented by integrating a neural amplifier chip die in close proximity to a tf-LIFE electrode. Consuming only 1mW and measuring 37 mmĂ—7.2 mmĂ—2.4 mm, this active tf-LIFE electrode creates a reliable connection and considerably shortens the distance between the electrode site and neural amplifier. This active electrode has demonstrated repeatable in-vivo recordings of compound action potentials from the rat sciatic nerve. Our results show that this electrode is suitable for repeated in-vivo recordings of compound action potentials from nerves in applications such as peripheral and visceral nerve interfaces that require low-noise stable nerve recordings.
Questo Libro Bianco sulla Robotica, che l’ENEA ha iniziato a realizzare nel 2012, e ancora lontan... more Questo Libro Bianco sulla Robotica, che l’ENEA ha iniziato a realizzare nel 2012, e ancora lontano dalla conclusione e dallo scopo originale di raffigurare un quadro, ragionevolmente completo, della ricerca sulla robotica in Italia. Viaggio dopo viaggio, visita dopo visita, le informazioni ed i suggerimenti forniti dai ricercatori sono aumentate fino a costituire un dossier fin troppo ricco e senza che la fine del lavoro fosse prossima. Cio ha costretto il gruppo che l’ENEA aveva costituito a tale scopo a prendere una decisione dolorosa, ma ancora piu ambiziosa: abbandonare l’idea iniziale di realizzare un singolo volume con un panorama esaustivo della ricerca nazionale nel settore, e di redigere invece un testo che, seppure incompleto, sia comunque valido in termini di informazione nel momento in cui viene stampato; un testo da migliorare di anno in anno con il contributo di tutti i ricercatori. L’obiettivo finale e quello di rappresentare un quadro in questo campo di ricerca al fi...
Positive Energy Districts and Neighborhoods (PEDs) are seen as a promising pathway towards sustai... more Positive Energy Districts and Neighborhoods (PEDs) are seen as a promising pathway towards sustainable urban areas. Several cities have already taken up such PED-related developments. To support such approaches, European countries joined forces to achieve 100 PEDs until 2025 through a comprehensive research and innovation program. A solid understanding and consideration of cities’ strategies, experiences and project features serve as the basis for developing and designing the PED program. JPI Urban Europe has been collecting information on projects towards sustainable urbanization and the energy transition across Europe. The collected cases are summarized in a PED Booklet whose update was recently published on the JPI Urban Europe website. Results presented in this paper provide insights from the analysis of 61 projects in Europe and offer recommendations for future PED developments.
As artificial prostheses become more refined, they are most often used as a therapeutic option fo... more As artificial prostheses become more refined, they are most often used as a therapeutic option for hand amputation. Differently from extra- or intraneural interfaces, regenerative nerve electrodes are designed to enable electrical interface with regrowing axonal bundles of injured nerves, aiming to achieve high selectivity for recording and stimulation. However, most of the developed designs pose an obstacle to the regrowth mechanisms due to low transparency and cause an impairment of the nerve regeneration. Here we present the double-aisle electrode, a new type of highly transparent, non-obstructive regenerative electrode. Using a double-side thin-film polyimide planar multi-contact electrode, two nerve fascicles can regenerate without physical impairment through two electrically-isolated aisles. We show that this electrode can be used to selectively record and stimulate fascicles, acutely as well as chronically, and allows regeneration in nerve gaps of several millimeters without impairment. This multi-aisle regenerative electrode may be suitable for neuroprosthetic applications, such as prostheses for the restoration of hand function after amputation or severe nerve injuries.
Micro-electrocorticography (ÎĽECoG) offers a minimally invasive neural interface with high spatial... more Micro-electrocorticography (ÎĽECoG) offers a minimally invasive neural interface with high spatial resolution over large areas of cortex. However, electrode arrays with many contacts that are individually wired to external recording systems are cumbersome and make recordings in freely behaving rodents challenging. We report a novel high-density 60-electrode system for ÎĽECoG recording in freely moving rats. Multiplexed headstages overcome the problem of wiring complexity by combining signals from many electrodes to a smaller number of connections. We have developed a low-cost, multiplexed recording system with 60 contacts at 406 ÎĽm spacing. We characterized the quality of the electrode signals using multiple metrics that tracked spatial variation, evoked-response detectability, and decoding value. Performance of the system was validated both in anesthetized animals and freely moving awake animals. We recorded ÎĽECoG signals over the primary auditory cortex, measuring responses to acous...
ABSTRACT Ultrathin stable transparent conductive nickel films were deposited on quartz substrates... more ABSTRACT Ultrathin stable transparent conductive nickel films were deposited on quartz substrates by radio frequency sputtering at room temperature. Such films showed visible transmittance up to 80% and conductivity up to 1.8 Ă— 104 S/cm, further increased to 2,3 Ă— 105 S/cm by incorporation of a micrometric silver grid. Atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy revealed quite compact, smooth and low surface roughness films. Excellent film stability, ease, fast and low cost process fabrication make these films highly competitive compared to indium tin oxide alternative transparent conductors. Films were characterized regarding their morphological, optical and electrical properties.
2009 4th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering, 2009
ABSTRACT In this paper a thin film intrafascicular interface has been modeled during the insertio... more ABSTRACT In this paper a thin film intrafascicular interface has been modeled during the insertion procedure inside peripheral nerves using a theoretical approach and a FEM analysis. In particular, the aim was to investigate the effects of several characteristics of the intraneural interfaces (e.g., the interface width and Kevlar filament diameter) on the maximal Von Mises stress reached during implantation. The results were used to gather new guidelines to develop more reliable thin film interfaces with maximal success rate during the implantation phase.
ABSTRACT Despite recognized as one key component for establishing a functional electrical connect... more ABSTRACT Despite recognized as one key component for establishing a functional electrical connection with nerves, neural invasive peripheral interfaces are still not optimal for long-term applications in humans. An improvement in the field of biocompatible and nontoxic materials is necessary to overcome the issues of interface/tissue mismatch and physiological reactions. The present work aimed to study, implement and characterize a novel approach to modify the surface of neural mi-crolectrodes basedon polyimide thin films. The purpose was to improve biocompatibility and to promote neuronal migration, growth and differentiation by increasing the surface roughness and endowing the surface with structure-reactivity for thiol-containing amino acids or peptides. L-Cysteine-Rhodamine B, used as a model biomolecule, was successfully grafted on samples surface via the introduction of cross-linkable vinyl groups on polyimide foils. Preliminary in vitro biological analysis allowed to evaluate the tendency of PC12 cells to adhere and to proliferate.
Conference proceedings : ... Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Annual Conference, 2006
The development of interfaces linking the human nervous system with artificial devices is an impo... more The development of interfaces linking the human nervous system with artificial devices is an important area of research and several groups are now addressing it. Interfaces represent the key enabling technology for the development of devices usable for the restoration of motor and sensory function in subjects affected by neurological disorders, injuries or amputations. For example, current hand prostheses use electromyographic (EMG) signals to extract volitional commands but this limits the possibility of controlling several degrees of freedom and of delivering sensory feedback. To achieve these goals, implantable neural interfaces are required. Among the candidate interfaces with the peripheral nervous system intra-neural electrodes seem to be an interesting solution due to their bandwidth and ability to access volition and deliver sensory feedback. However, several drawbacks have to be addressed in order to increase their usability. In this paper, experiments to address many of th...
ABSTRACT This article illustrates the development and preliminary results of SELINE, a self-openi... more ABSTRACT This article illustrates the development and preliminary results of SELINE, a self-opening neural interface. The advantages of this innovative neural interface are: higher selectivity due to its three-dimensional structure and efficient anchorage system to the nervous tissue. The device is made of polyimide that is a lightweight, flexible and biocompatible polymer. The electrode has been microfabricated using lithographic techniques; electrical and mechanical tests have been performed to evaluate the integrity of the device. Successful results have been obtained in the development of the electrode with excellent mechanical and electrical properties.
Conference proceedings : ... Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Annual Conference, 2010
The aim of this work was to investigate the possibility to obtain stable bioactive coatings for p... more The aim of this work was to investigate the possibility to obtain stable bioactive coatings for polyimide/platinum neural interfaces based on thin film technology for applications into the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Laminin (LI), a glycoprotein of the extracellular matrix, which guides and promotes differentiation and growth of neurons, was selected to deposit bioactive coatings. Dip-coating was performed on dummy structures at different LI concentrations. Indirect methods allowed to identify and characterize laminin on coated samples. Mechanical stability was also confirmed by indirect evaluations. Pilot experiments with differentiated PC12 cells, by the addition of nerve growth factor (NGF), showed improved neurite outgrowth on the coated probes compared to bare polyimide samples.
2015 7th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering (NER), 2015
Interfacing with the nervous system to restore functional motor activity is a promising therapy t... more Interfacing with the nervous system to restore functional motor activity is a promising therapy to augment the classical surgical approaches to treating peripheral nerve injuries. Despite the advances in electrode microelectronics engineering, the challenge of extracting information from injured nerves to help restore motor function remains unsolved. Here we used waveform feature extraction and clustering techniques to identify a discrete set of events in intraneural recordings of the median nerve in a non-human primate (NHP) during grasping tasks. This analysis allowed the classification of the different phases of hand grasping. The waveform features were found to be significantly different for each phase of grasping. Since these waveforms can be seen as the minimal signal components that result from the activation of a group of nerve fibers, we denominated them miniature compound nerve action potentials (mCNAPs). The correlation between mCNAPs and the different stages of movement can be utilized in the near future to design high-performance neuroprosthetic therapies.
2014 IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS) Proceedings, 2014
Restoration of motor function in cases of peripheral nerve injury is a challenging problem. Altho... more Restoration of motor function in cases of peripheral nerve injury is a challenging problem. Although peripheral nerves do regenerate, the time required for peripheral nerves to regenerate often causes atrophy to occur in the muscles before they can be re-innervated. This paper presents a solution through proximal recording of nerve signals and distal muscle stimulation. A fully implantable hardware architecture is described that can be operated by means of inductive power and MICS band data transmission schemes. Preliminary experiments and validation studies are reported with non-human primates based on recordings in the median nerve, stimulation of hand muscles, and task decoding and classification. This approach shows promise in creating a neural prosthesis capable of restoring hand movements in patients with upper limb peripheral nerve injuries.
2014 36th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2014
Neuroprosthetic devices that interface with the nervous system to restore functional motor activi... more Neuroprosthetic devices that interface with the nervous system to restore functional motor activity offer a viable alternative to nerve regeneration, especially in proximal nerve injuries like brachial plexus injuries where muscle atrophy may set in before nerve re-innervation occurs. Prior studies have used control signals from muscle or cortical activity. However, nerve signals are preferred in many cases since they permit more natural and precise control when compared to muscle activity, and can be accessed with much lower risk than cortical activity. Identification of nerve signals that control the appropriate muscles is essential for the development of such a `bionic link'. Here we examine the correlation between muscle and nerve signals responsible for hand grasping in the M. fascicularis. Simultaneous recordings were performed using a 4-channel thin-film longitudinal intra-fascicular electrode (tf-LIFE) and 9 bipolar endomysial muscle electrodes while the animal performed grasping movements. We were able to identify a high degree of correlation (r > 0.6) between nerve signals from the median nerve and movement-dependent muscle activity from the flexor muscles of the forearm, with a delay that corresponded to 25 m/s nerve conduction velocity. The phase of the flexion could be identified using a wavelet approximation of the ENG. This result confirms this approach for a future neu-roprosthetic device for the treatment of peripheral nerve injuries.
2015 7th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering (NER), 2015
Thin-film longitudinal intrafascicular electrodes (tf-LIFE) are widely used for peripheral nerve ... more Thin-film longitudinal intrafascicular electrodes (tf-LIFE) are widely used for peripheral nerve recordings. tf-LIFEs are also promising electrodes for neural signal acquisition in future peripheral nerve prostheses. However, common mode signal interference, and electrical artifacts originating from long wire leads and wire movement are known problems encountered when using such electrodes, which lead to degradation in the recording quality. Here, we report an active tf-LIFE electrode implemented by integrating a neural amplifier chip die in close proximity to a tf-LIFE electrode. Consuming only 1mW and measuring 37 mmĂ—7.2 mmĂ—2.4 mm, this active tf-LIFE electrode creates a reliable connection and considerably shortens the distance between the electrode site and neural amplifier. This active electrode has demonstrated repeatable in-vivo recordings of compound action potentials from the rat sciatic nerve. Our results show that this electrode is suitable for repeated in-vivo recordings of compound action potentials from nerves in applications such as peripheral and visceral nerve interfaces that require low-noise stable nerve recordings.
Questo Libro Bianco sulla Robotica, che l’ENEA ha iniziato a realizzare nel 2012, e ancora lontan... more Questo Libro Bianco sulla Robotica, che l’ENEA ha iniziato a realizzare nel 2012, e ancora lontano dalla conclusione e dallo scopo originale di raffigurare un quadro, ragionevolmente completo, della ricerca sulla robotica in Italia. Viaggio dopo viaggio, visita dopo visita, le informazioni ed i suggerimenti forniti dai ricercatori sono aumentate fino a costituire un dossier fin troppo ricco e senza che la fine del lavoro fosse prossima. Cio ha costretto il gruppo che l’ENEA aveva costituito a tale scopo a prendere una decisione dolorosa, ma ancora piu ambiziosa: abbandonare l’idea iniziale di realizzare un singolo volume con un panorama esaustivo della ricerca nazionale nel settore, e di redigere invece un testo che, seppure incompleto, sia comunque valido in termini di informazione nel momento in cui viene stampato; un testo da migliorare di anno in anno con il contributo di tutti i ricercatori. L’obiettivo finale e quello di rappresentare un quadro in questo campo di ricerca al fi...
Positive Energy Districts and Neighborhoods (PEDs) are seen as a promising pathway towards sustai... more Positive Energy Districts and Neighborhoods (PEDs) are seen as a promising pathway towards sustainable urban areas. Several cities have already taken up such PED-related developments. To support such approaches, European countries joined forces to achieve 100 PEDs until 2025 through a comprehensive research and innovation program. A solid understanding and consideration of cities’ strategies, experiences and project features serve as the basis for developing and designing the PED program. JPI Urban Europe has been collecting information on projects towards sustainable urbanization and the energy transition across Europe. The collected cases are summarized in a PED Booklet whose update was recently published on the JPI Urban Europe website. Results presented in this paper provide insights from the analysis of 61 projects in Europe and offer recommendations for future PED developments.
As artificial prostheses become more refined, they are most often used as a therapeutic option fo... more As artificial prostheses become more refined, they are most often used as a therapeutic option for hand amputation. Differently from extra- or intraneural interfaces, regenerative nerve electrodes are designed to enable electrical interface with regrowing axonal bundles of injured nerves, aiming to achieve high selectivity for recording and stimulation. However, most of the developed designs pose an obstacle to the regrowth mechanisms due to low transparency and cause an impairment of the nerve regeneration. Here we present the double-aisle electrode, a new type of highly transparent, non-obstructive regenerative electrode. Using a double-side thin-film polyimide planar multi-contact electrode, two nerve fascicles can regenerate without physical impairment through two electrically-isolated aisles. We show that this electrode can be used to selectively record and stimulate fascicles, acutely as well as chronically, and allows regeneration in nerve gaps of several millimeters without impairment. This multi-aisle regenerative electrode may be suitable for neuroprosthetic applications, such as prostheses for the restoration of hand function after amputation or severe nerve injuries.
Micro-electrocorticography (ÎĽECoG) offers a minimally invasive neural interface with high spatial... more Micro-electrocorticography (ÎĽECoG) offers a minimally invasive neural interface with high spatial resolution over large areas of cortex. However, electrode arrays with many contacts that are individually wired to external recording systems are cumbersome and make recordings in freely behaving rodents challenging. We report a novel high-density 60-electrode system for ÎĽECoG recording in freely moving rats. Multiplexed headstages overcome the problem of wiring complexity by combining signals from many electrodes to a smaller number of connections. We have developed a low-cost, multiplexed recording system with 60 contacts at 406 ÎĽm spacing. We characterized the quality of the electrode signals using multiple metrics that tracked spatial variation, evoked-response detectability, and decoding value. Performance of the system was validated both in anesthetized animals and freely moving awake animals. We recorded ÎĽECoG signals over the primary auditory cortex, measuring responses to acous...
ABSTRACT Ultrathin stable transparent conductive nickel films were deposited on quartz substrates... more ABSTRACT Ultrathin stable transparent conductive nickel films were deposited on quartz substrates by radio frequency sputtering at room temperature. Such films showed visible transmittance up to 80% and conductivity up to 1.8 Ă— 104 S/cm, further increased to 2,3 Ă— 105 S/cm by incorporation of a micrometric silver grid. Atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy revealed quite compact, smooth and low surface roughness films. Excellent film stability, ease, fast and low cost process fabrication make these films highly competitive compared to indium tin oxide alternative transparent conductors. Films were characterized regarding their morphological, optical and electrical properties.
2009 4th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering, 2009
ABSTRACT In this paper a thin film intrafascicular interface has been modeled during the insertio... more ABSTRACT In this paper a thin film intrafascicular interface has been modeled during the insertion procedure inside peripheral nerves using a theoretical approach and a FEM analysis. In particular, the aim was to investigate the effects of several characteristics of the intraneural interfaces (e.g., the interface width and Kevlar filament diameter) on the maximal Von Mises stress reached during implantation. The results were used to gather new guidelines to develop more reliable thin film interfaces with maximal success rate during the implantation phase.
ABSTRACT Despite recognized as one key component for establishing a functional electrical connect... more ABSTRACT Despite recognized as one key component for establishing a functional electrical connection with nerves, neural invasive peripheral interfaces are still not optimal for long-term applications in humans. An improvement in the field of biocompatible and nontoxic materials is necessary to overcome the issues of interface/tissue mismatch and physiological reactions. The present work aimed to study, implement and characterize a novel approach to modify the surface of neural mi-crolectrodes basedon polyimide thin films. The purpose was to improve biocompatibility and to promote neuronal migration, growth and differentiation by increasing the surface roughness and endowing the surface with structure-reactivity for thiol-containing amino acids or peptides. L-Cysteine-Rhodamine B, used as a model biomolecule, was successfully grafted on samples surface via the introduction of cross-linkable vinyl groups on polyimide foils. Preliminary in vitro biological analysis allowed to evaluate the tendency of PC12 cells to adhere and to proliferate.
Conference proceedings : ... Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Annual Conference, 2006
The development of interfaces linking the human nervous system with artificial devices is an impo... more The development of interfaces linking the human nervous system with artificial devices is an important area of research and several groups are now addressing it. Interfaces represent the key enabling technology for the development of devices usable for the restoration of motor and sensory function in subjects affected by neurological disorders, injuries or amputations. For example, current hand prostheses use electromyographic (EMG) signals to extract volitional commands but this limits the possibility of controlling several degrees of freedom and of delivering sensory feedback. To achieve these goals, implantable neural interfaces are required. Among the candidate interfaces with the peripheral nervous system intra-neural electrodes seem to be an interesting solution due to their bandwidth and ability to access volition and deliver sensory feedback. However, several drawbacks have to be addressed in order to increase their usability. In this paper, experiments to address many of th...
ABSTRACT This article illustrates the development and preliminary results of SELINE, a self-openi... more ABSTRACT This article illustrates the development and preliminary results of SELINE, a self-opening neural interface. The advantages of this innovative neural interface are: higher selectivity due to its three-dimensional structure and efficient anchorage system to the nervous tissue. The device is made of polyimide that is a lightweight, flexible and biocompatible polymer. The electrode has been microfabricated using lithographic techniques; electrical and mechanical tests have been performed to evaluate the integrity of the device. Successful results have been obtained in the development of the electrode with excellent mechanical and electrical properties.
Conference proceedings : ... Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Annual Conference, 2010
The aim of this work was to investigate the possibility to obtain stable bioactive coatings for p... more The aim of this work was to investigate the possibility to obtain stable bioactive coatings for polyimide/platinum neural interfaces based on thin film technology for applications into the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Laminin (LI), a glycoprotein of the extracellular matrix, which guides and promotes differentiation and growth of neurons, was selected to deposit bioactive coatings. Dip-coating was performed on dummy structures at different LI concentrations. Indirect methods allowed to identify and characterize laminin on coated samples. Mechanical stability was also confirmed by indirect evaluations. Pilot experiments with differentiated PC12 cells, by the addition of nerve growth factor (NGF), showed improved neurite outgrowth on the coated probes compared to bare polyimide samples.
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Papers by Silvia Bossi