Background One of the most popular time-efficient training methods when training for muscle hyper... more Background One of the most popular time-efficient training methods when training for muscle hypertrophy is drop sets, which is performed by taking sets to concentric muscle failure at a given load, then making a drop by reducing the load and immediately taking the next set to concentric or voluntary muscle failure. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to compare the effects of drop sets over traditional sets on skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Methods This systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The SPORTDiscus and MEDLINE/PubMed databases were searched on April 9, 2022, for all studies investigating the effects of the drop set training method on muscle hypertrophy that meets the predefined inclusion criteria. Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Version 3 (Biostat Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA) was used to run the statistical analysis. Publication bias was assessed through visual inspection of the fun...
Background The effectiveness of strength training with free-weight vs. machine equipment is heavi... more Background The effectiveness of strength training with free-weight vs. machine equipment is heavily debated. Thus, the purpose of this meta-analysis was to summarize the data on the effect of free-weight versus machine-based strength training on maximal strength, jump height and hypertrophy. Methods The review was conducted in accordance with the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, and the systematic search of literature was conducted up to January 1st, 2023. Studies that directly compared free-weight vs. machine-based strength training for a minimum of 6 weeks in adults (18–60 yrs.) were included. Results Thirteen studies (outcomes: maximal strength [n = 12], jump performance [n = 5], muscle hypertrophy [n = 5]) with a total sample of 1016 participants (789 men, 219 women) were included. Strength in free-weight tests increased significantly more with free-weight training than with machines (SMD: -0.210, CI: -0.391, -0.029, p = 0.0...
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
The barbell bench press is often performed at different repetition maximums (RM). However, little... more The barbell bench press is often performed at different repetition maximums (RM). However, little is known about the last repetition of these repetition maximums in terms of movement kinematics and electromyographic activity in the bench press. This study compared kinematics and electromyographic activity during the last repetition of 1-RM, 3-RM, 6-RM, and 10-RM on the barbell bench press. Twelve healthy recreationally bench press-trained males (body mass: 84.3 ± 7.8 kg, age: 23.5 ± 2.6 years, height: 183.8 ± 4.2 cm) performed the bench press with a self-chosen grip width with four different repetition maximums. The participants bench pressed 96.5 ± 14.1, 88.5 ± 13.0, 81.5 ± 12.3, and 72.8 ± 10.5 kg with the 1-RM, 3-RM, 6-RM, and 10-RM. No differences were found between the bench press conditions in kinematic or electromyographic activity, except for the 10-RM, where a higher barbell velocity was observed at peak barbell deacceleration and first minimum barbell velocity (p ≤ 0.05) c...
Journal of strength and conditioning research, Jan 27, 2018
Previous investigations of strength have only focused on biomechanical or psychological determina... more Previous investigations of strength have only focused on biomechanical or psychological determinants, while ignoring the potential interplay and relative contributions of these variables. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relative contributions of biomechanical, anthropometric, and psychological variables to the prediction of maximum parallel barbell back squat strength. Twenty-one college-aged participants (male = 14; female = 7; age = 23 ± 3 years) reported to the laboratory for two visits. The first visit consisted of anthropometric, psychometric, and parallel barbell back squat one-repetition maximum (1RM) testing. On the second visit, participants performed isometric dynamometry testing for the knee, hip, and spinal extensors in a sticking point position-specific manner. Multiple linear regression and correlations were used to investigate the combined and individual relationships between biomechanical, anthropometric, and psychological variables and squat 1RM. Mu...
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
This study compared the kinetics, barbell, and joint kinematics and muscle activation patterns be... more This study compared the kinetics, barbell, and joint kinematics and muscle activation patterns between a one-repetition maximum (1-RM) Smith machine squat and isometric squats performed at 10 different heights from the lowest barbell height. The aim was to investigate if force output is lowest in the sticking region, indicating that this is a poor biomechanical region. Twelve resistance trained males (age: 22 ± 5 years, mass: 83.5 ± 39 kg, height: 1.81 ± 0.20 m) were tested. A repeated two-way analysis of variance showed that Force output decreased in the sticking region for the 1-RM trial, while for the isometric trials, force output was lowest between 0–15 cm from the lowest barbell height, data that support the sticking region is a poor biomechanical region. Almost all muscles showed higher activity at 1-RM compared with isometric attempts (p < 0.05). The quadriceps activity decreased, and the gluteus maximus and shank muscle activity increased with increasing height (p ≤ 0.02...
Examining participatory motives clarifies what engages and keeps individuals participating in exe... more Examining participatory motives clarifies what engages and keeps individuals participating in exercise. The popularity of training at fitness centres has greatly increased over the last two decades, but individual determinants for motivation remain uncertain. This study compared motives between gender and age categories in training and performing physical activity at Norwegian fitness centres. To compare motives, a survey utilising a standardised questionnaire (MPAM-R) was conducted at six different Norwegian fitness centres. It was hypothesised that the intrinsic motive socialisation and extrinsic motive fitness would be more important among the older age categories for both genders, while the extrinsic motive appearance and intrinsic motive enjoyment would be more important among younger age groups. A total response of 183 men and 150 women, aged 14–80 years, was divided into seven categories based on their age and included in the statistical analysis. The main findings after cond...
The target of this study was to investigate the acute effect of a supramaximal augmented eccentri... more The target of this study was to investigate the acute effect of a supramaximal augmented eccentric load on the kinematics and myoelectric activity during the concentric phase of the lift in a traditional bench press. Ten resistance-trained males (age 24 ± 6.4 years, height 1.80 ± 0.07 m, body-mass 87.2 ± 16.9 kg) performed two repetitions at 110/85% of the 1-RM in the dynamic accentuated external resistance (DAER) group and two repetitions at 85/85% of the 1-RM for the control group in a traditional bench press. The barbell kinematics, joint kinematics and myoelectric activity of eight muscles were measured in the eccentric phase and the pre-sticking, sticking and post-sticking regions. The main findings were that the sticking region started at a lower barbell height and that a lower barbell velocity was observed in the sticking region during the second repetition in the DAER condition compared to the control condition. Additionally, the lateral deltoid muscle and clavicle part of t...
The purpose of the study was to compare kinematics and muscle activity between two variations of ... more The purpose of the study was to compare kinematics and muscle activity between two variations of unilateral squats under different stability conditions. Twelve male volunteers (age: 23±5 years, mass: 80±17 kg, height: 1.81±0.11 m, strength-training experience: 4.3±1.9 years) performed four repetitions with the same external load (≈4RM). Two variations (with the non-stance leg forwards vs. backwards) were performed in a Smith-machine and free-weight condition. The variables were barbell velocity, lifting time and surface electromyography activity of the lower extremity and trunk muscles during the descending and ascending phase. The main findings were 1) peak force was higher when performing the unilateral squats in the Smith machine; 2) peak ascending barbell velocity increased from repetition 3–4 with free weight; and 3) muscle activity from the rectus femoris, vastus lateral, biceps femoris, gluteus medius, and erector spinae increased with repetitions, whereas gluteus, and medial...
BackgroundMaximal strength is a critical determinant of performance in numerous sports. Autoregul... more BackgroundMaximal strength is a critical determinant of performance in numerous sports. Autoregulation is a resistance training prescription approach to adjust training variables based on the individuals’ daily fluctuations in performance, which are a result of training-induced fitness and fatigue, together with readiness from daily non-training stressors.ObjectiveThis review aimed to summarise the effects of different subjective and objective autoregulation methods for intensity and volume on enhancing maximal strength.Materials and MethodsA comprehensive literature search was conducted through SPORTDiscus, PubMed and Google Scholar. Studies had to meet the following criteria to be included in the review: (1) estimation of 1-RM or a 1-RM test for both pre-test and post-test to measure progression in strength assessment during the training intervention, (2) a training comparison group, (3) participants were healthy, (4) the article had a detailed description of training intensity, t...
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2021
Barbell placement can affect squat performance around the sticking region. This study compared ki... more Barbell placement can affect squat performance around the sticking region. This study compared kinematics, kinetics, and myoelectric activity of the safety-bar squat with the high-bar, and low-bar squat around the sticking region. Six recreationally resistance-trained men (26.3 ± 3.1 years, body mass: 81 ± 7.7 kg) and eight women (22.1 ± 2.2 years, body mass: 65.7 ± 10.5 kg) performed three repetition maximums in all three squat conditions. The participants lifted the least load with the safety bar followed by the high-bar and then the low-bar squat. Greater myoelectric activity of the gluteus maximus was observed during safety-bar squats than high-bar squats. Also, larger knee extension moments were observed for the safety bar compared with low-bar squat. Men had higher myoelectric activity in the safety-bar condition for the gluteus maximus during all regions in comparison with women, and greater knee valgus at the second occurrence of peak barbell velocity. Our findings suggest t...
Barbell placement and stance width both affect lifting performance in the back squat around the s... more Barbell placement and stance width both affect lifting performance in the back squat around the sticking region. However, little is known about how these squat conditions separately could affect the lifting performance. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of stance width and barbell placement upon kinematics, kinetics, and myoelectric activity around the sticking region during a three-repetition maximum back squat. Nine men and nine women (body mass: 76.2 ±11.1, age: 24.9 ± 2.6) performed back squats with four different techniques, such as: high-bar narrow stance (HBNS), high-bar wide stance, low-bar narrow stance, and low-bar wide stance where they lifted 99.2 ± 23.6, 92.9 ± 23.6, 102.5 ± 24.7, and 97.1 ± 25.6 kg, respectively. The main findings were that squatting with a low-bar wide stance condition resulted in larger hip contributions to the total moment than the other squat conditions, whereas squatting with an HBNS resulted in greater knee contributions to the total...
Grip width has been found to affect lifting performance, especially around the sticking region; h... more Grip width has been found to affect lifting performance, especially around the sticking region; however, little is known about the kinetics and muscle activities that could explain these differences in performance. This study aimed to investigate the effects of grip width on the joint, barbell kinematics, and horizontal kinetics, analyzed in tandem with the effects of muscle activation around the sticking region in the one repetition maximum (1-RM) barbell bench press. Fourteen healthy bench press-trained males (body mass: 87.8 ± 18.4, age: 25 ± 5.4) performed 1-RM with a small, medium, and wide grip width. The participants bench pressed 109.8 ± 24.5 kg, 108.9 ± 26.4 kg, and 103.7 ± 24 kg with the wide, medium, and narrow grip widths. Furthermore, the wide grip width produced 13.1–15.7% lateral forces, while the medium and narrow grip widths produced 0.4–1.8 and 8.5–10.1% medially directed forces of the vertical force produced during the sticking region, respectively. Horizontal for...
The aim of this study was to investigate barbell, joint kinematics, joint kinetics of hip, knee, ... more The aim of this study was to investigate barbell, joint kinematics, joint kinetics of hip, knee, and ankle in tandem with myoelectric activity around the sticking region in three-repetition maximum (3-RM) back squats among recreationally trained lifters. Unlike previous literature, this study also investigated the event of first-peak deacceleration, which was expected to be the event with the lowest force output. Twenty-five recreationally trained lifters (body mass: 70.8 ± 10.5, age: 24.6 ± 3.4, height: 172 ± 8.5) were tested in 3-RM back squats. A repeated one-way analysis of variance showed that ground reaction force output decreased at first peak deacceleration compared with the other events. Moreover, torso forward lean, hip moment arm, and hip contribution to total moment increased, whereas the knee moment arms and moment contribution to total moment decreased in the sticking region. Also, stable moment arms and moment contributions to total moment were observed for the ankle ...
Background One of the most popular time-efficient training methods when training for muscle hyper... more Background One of the most popular time-efficient training methods when training for muscle hypertrophy is drop sets, which is performed by taking sets to concentric muscle failure at a given load, then making a drop by reducing the load and immediately taking the next set to concentric or voluntary muscle failure. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to compare the effects of drop sets over traditional sets on skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Methods This systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The SPORTDiscus and MEDLINE/PubMed databases were searched on April 9, 2022, for all studies investigating the effects of the drop set training method on muscle hypertrophy that meets the predefined inclusion criteria. Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Version 3 (Biostat Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA) was used to run the statistical analysis. Publication bias was assessed through visual inspection of the fun...
Background The effectiveness of strength training with free-weight vs. machine equipment is heavi... more Background The effectiveness of strength training with free-weight vs. machine equipment is heavily debated. Thus, the purpose of this meta-analysis was to summarize the data on the effect of free-weight versus machine-based strength training on maximal strength, jump height and hypertrophy. Methods The review was conducted in accordance with the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, and the systematic search of literature was conducted up to January 1st, 2023. Studies that directly compared free-weight vs. machine-based strength training for a minimum of 6 weeks in adults (18–60 yrs.) were included. Results Thirteen studies (outcomes: maximal strength [n = 12], jump performance [n = 5], muscle hypertrophy [n = 5]) with a total sample of 1016 participants (789 men, 219 women) were included. Strength in free-weight tests increased significantly more with free-weight training than with machines (SMD: -0.210, CI: -0.391, -0.029, p = 0.0...
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
The barbell bench press is often performed at different repetition maximums (RM). However, little... more The barbell bench press is often performed at different repetition maximums (RM). However, little is known about the last repetition of these repetition maximums in terms of movement kinematics and electromyographic activity in the bench press. This study compared kinematics and electromyographic activity during the last repetition of 1-RM, 3-RM, 6-RM, and 10-RM on the barbell bench press. Twelve healthy recreationally bench press-trained males (body mass: 84.3 ± 7.8 kg, age: 23.5 ± 2.6 years, height: 183.8 ± 4.2 cm) performed the bench press with a self-chosen grip width with four different repetition maximums. The participants bench pressed 96.5 ± 14.1, 88.5 ± 13.0, 81.5 ± 12.3, and 72.8 ± 10.5 kg with the 1-RM, 3-RM, 6-RM, and 10-RM. No differences were found between the bench press conditions in kinematic or electromyographic activity, except for the 10-RM, where a higher barbell velocity was observed at peak barbell deacceleration and first minimum barbell velocity (p ≤ 0.05) c...
Journal of strength and conditioning research, Jan 27, 2018
Previous investigations of strength have only focused on biomechanical or psychological determina... more Previous investigations of strength have only focused on biomechanical or psychological determinants, while ignoring the potential interplay and relative contributions of these variables. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relative contributions of biomechanical, anthropometric, and psychological variables to the prediction of maximum parallel barbell back squat strength. Twenty-one college-aged participants (male = 14; female = 7; age = 23 ± 3 years) reported to the laboratory for two visits. The first visit consisted of anthropometric, psychometric, and parallel barbell back squat one-repetition maximum (1RM) testing. On the second visit, participants performed isometric dynamometry testing for the knee, hip, and spinal extensors in a sticking point position-specific manner. Multiple linear regression and correlations were used to investigate the combined and individual relationships between biomechanical, anthropometric, and psychological variables and squat 1RM. Mu...
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
This study compared the kinetics, barbell, and joint kinematics and muscle activation patterns be... more This study compared the kinetics, barbell, and joint kinematics and muscle activation patterns between a one-repetition maximum (1-RM) Smith machine squat and isometric squats performed at 10 different heights from the lowest barbell height. The aim was to investigate if force output is lowest in the sticking region, indicating that this is a poor biomechanical region. Twelve resistance trained males (age: 22 ± 5 years, mass: 83.5 ± 39 kg, height: 1.81 ± 0.20 m) were tested. A repeated two-way analysis of variance showed that Force output decreased in the sticking region for the 1-RM trial, while for the isometric trials, force output was lowest between 0–15 cm from the lowest barbell height, data that support the sticking region is a poor biomechanical region. Almost all muscles showed higher activity at 1-RM compared with isometric attempts (p < 0.05). The quadriceps activity decreased, and the gluteus maximus and shank muscle activity increased with increasing height (p ≤ 0.02...
Examining participatory motives clarifies what engages and keeps individuals participating in exe... more Examining participatory motives clarifies what engages and keeps individuals participating in exercise. The popularity of training at fitness centres has greatly increased over the last two decades, but individual determinants for motivation remain uncertain. This study compared motives between gender and age categories in training and performing physical activity at Norwegian fitness centres. To compare motives, a survey utilising a standardised questionnaire (MPAM-R) was conducted at six different Norwegian fitness centres. It was hypothesised that the intrinsic motive socialisation and extrinsic motive fitness would be more important among the older age categories for both genders, while the extrinsic motive appearance and intrinsic motive enjoyment would be more important among younger age groups. A total response of 183 men and 150 women, aged 14–80 years, was divided into seven categories based on their age and included in the statistical analysis. The main findings after cond...
The target of this study was to investigate the acute effect of a supramaximal augmented eccentri... more The target of this study was to investigate the acute effect of a supramaximal augmented eccentric load on the kinematics and myoelectric activity during the concentric phase of the lift in a traditional bench press. Ten resistance-trained males (age 24 ± 6.4 years, height 1.80 ± 0.07 m, body-mass 87.2 ± 16.9 kg) performed two repetitions at 110/85% of the 1-RM in the dynamic accentuated external resistance (DAER) group and two repetitions at 85/85% of the 1-RM for the control group in a traditional bench press. The barbell kinematics, joint kinematics and myoelectric activity of eight muscles were measured in the eccentric phase and the pre-sticking, sticking and post-sticking regions. The main findings were that the sticking region started at a lower barbell height and that a lower barbell velocity was observed in the sticking region during the second repetition in the DAER condition compared to the control condition. Additionally, the lateral deltoid muscle and clavicle part of t...
The purpose of the study was to compare kinematics and muscle activity between two variations of ... more The purpose of the study was to compare kinematics and muscle activity between two variations of unilateral squats under different stability conditions. Twelve male volunteers (age: 23±5 years, mass: 80±17 kg, height: 1.81±0.11 m, strength-training experience: 4.3±1.9 years) performed four repetitions with the same external load (≈4RM). Two variations (with the non-stance leg forwards vs. backwards) were performed in a Smith-machine and free-weight condition. The variables were barbell velocity, lifting time and surface electromyography activity of the lower extremity and trunk muscles during the descending and ascending phase. The main findings were 1) peak force was higher when performing the unilateral squats in the Smith machine; 2) peak ascending barbell velocity increased from repetition 3–4 with free weight; and 3) muscle activity from the rectus femoris, vastus lateral, biceps femoris, gluteus medius, and erector spinae increased with repetitions, whereas gluteus, and medial...
BackgroundMaximal strength is a critical determinant of performance in numerous sports. Autoregul... more BackgroundMaximal strength is a critical determinant of performance in numerous sports. Autoregulation is a resistance training prescription approach to adjust training variables based on the individuals’ daily fluctuations in performance, which are a result of training-induced fitness and fatigue, together with readiness from daily non-training stressors.ObjectiveThis review aimed to summarise the effects of different subjective and objective autoregulation methods for intensity and volume on enhancing maximal strength.Materials and MethodsA comprehensive literature search was conducted through SPORTDiscus, PubMed and Google Scholar. Studies had to meet the following criteria to be included in the review: (1) estimation of 1-RM or a 1-RM test for both pre-test and post-test to measure progression in strength assessment during the training intervention, (2) a training comparison group, (3) participants were healthy, (4) the article had a detailed description of training intensity, t...
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2021
Barbell placement can affect squat performance around the sticking region. This study compared ki... more Barbell placement can affect squat performance around the sticking region. This study compared kinematics, kinetics, and myoelectric activity of the safety-bar squat with the high-bar, and low-bar squat around the sticking region. Six recreationally resistance-trained men (26.3 ± 3.1 years, body mass: 81 ± 7.7 kg) and eight women (22.1 ± 2.2 years, body mass: 65.7 ± 10.5 kg) performed three repetition maximums in all three squat conditions. The participants lifted the least load with the safety bar followed by the high-bar and then the low-bar squat. Greater myoelectric activity of the gluteus maximus was observed during safety-bar squats than high-bar squats. Also, larger knee extension moments were observed for the safety bar compared with low-bar squat. Men had higher myoelectric activity in the safety-bar condition for the gluteus maximus during all regions in comparison with women, and greater knee valgus at the second occurrence of peak barbell velocity. Our findings suggest t...
Barbell placement and stance width both affect lifting performance in the back squat around the s... more Barbell placement and stance width both affect lifting performance in the back squat around the sticking region. However, little is known about how these squat conditions separately could affect the lifting performance. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of stance width and barbell placement upon kinematics, kinetics, and myoelectric activity around the sticking region during a three-repetition maximum back squat. Nine men and nine women (body mass: 76.2 ±11.1, age: 24.9 ± 2.6) performed back squats with four different techniques, such as: high-bar narrow stance (HBNS), high-bar wide stance, low-bar narrow stance, and low-bar wide stance where they lifted 99.2 ± 23.6, 92.9 ± 23.6, 102.5 ± 24.7, and 97.1 ± 25.6 kg, respectively. The main findings were that squatting with a low-bar wide stance condition resulted in larger hip contributions to the total moment than the other squat conditions, whereas squatting with an HBNS resulted in greater knee contributions to the total...
Grip width has been found to affect lifting performance, especially around the sticking region; h... more Grip width has been found to affect lifting performance, especially around the sticking region; however, little is known about the kinetics and muscle activities that could explain these differences in performance. This study aimed to investigate the effects of grip width on the joint, barbell kinematics, and horizontal kinetics, analyzed in tandem with the effects of muscle activation around the sticking region in the one repetition maximum (1-RM) barbell bench press. Fourteen healthy bench press-trained males (body mass: 87.8 ± 18.4, age: 25 ± 5.4) performed 1-RM with a small, medium, and wide grip width. The participants bench pressed 109.8 ± 24.5 kg, 108.9 ± 26.4 kg, and 103.7 ± 24 kg with the wide, medium, and narrow grip widths. Furthermore, the wide grip width produced 13.1–15.7% lateral forces, while the medium and narrow grip widths produced 0.4–1.8 and 8.5–10.1% medially directed forces of the vertical force produced during the sticking region, respectively. Horizontal for...
The aim of this study was to investigate barbell, joint kinematics, joint kinetics of hip, knee, ... more The aim of this study was to investigate barbell, joint kinematics, joint kinetics of hip, knee, and ankle in tandem with myoelectric activity around the sticking region in three-repetition maximum (3-RM) back squats among recreationally trained lifters. Unlike previous literature, this study also investigated the event of first-peak deacceleration, which was expected to be the event with the lowest force output. Twenty-five recreationally trained lifters (body mass: 70.8 ± 10.5, age: 24.6 ± 3.4, height: 172 ± 8.5) were tested in 3-RM back squats. A repeated one-way analysis of variance showed that ground reaction force output decreased at first peak deacceleration compared with the other events. Moreover, torso forward lean, hip moment arm, and hip contribution to total moment increased, whereas the knee moment arms and moment contribution to total moment decreased in the sticking region. Also, stable moment arms and moment contributions to total moment were observed for the ankle ...
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