Laser-based analyses of concentration and isotopic content allow unprecedented temporal resolutio... more Laser-based analyses of concentration and isotopic content allow unprecedented temporal resolution for a number of important atmospheric constituents. Perhaps overlooked is the potential for these tools to also provide analyses in a more traditional "mass spectrometric" mode that is readily deployable in a field setting. Certain sampling regimes (e.g. soil profiles) are not appropriate for continuous sampling due to their
Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 2013
ABSTRACT The movement of moisture into, out-of, and within forest ecosystems is modulated by feed... more ABSTRACT The movement of moisture into, out-of, and within forest ecosystems is modulated by feedbacks that stem from processes which couple plants, soil, and the atmosphere. While an understanding of these processes has been gleaned from Eddy Covariance techniques, the reliability of the method suffers at night because of weak turbulence. During the summer of 2011, continuous profiles of the isotopic composition (i.e., δ18O and δD) of water vapor and periodic measurements of soil, leaf, and precipitation pools were measured in an open-canopy ponderosa pine forest in central Colorado to study within-canopy nocturnal water cycling. The isotopic composition of the nocturnal water vapor varies significantly based on the relative contributions of the three major hydrological processes acting on the forest: dewfall, exchange of moisture between leaf waters and canopy vapor, and periodic mixing between the canopy and background air. Dewfall proved to be surprisingly common (˜30% of the nights) and detectable on both the surface and within the canopy through the isotopic measurements. While surface dew could be observed using leaf wetness and soil moisture sensors, dew in the foliage was only measurable through isotopic analysis of the vapor and often occurred even when no dew accumulated on the surface. Nocturnal moisture cycling plays a critical role in water availability in forest ecosystems through foliar absorption and transpiration, and assessing these dynamics, as done here, is necessary for fully characterizing the hydrological controls on terrestrial productivity.
The estimation of spatial and temporal distributions of evapotranspiration is a long standing cha... more The estimation of spatial and temporal distributions of evapotranspiration is a long standing challenge for hydrologic science. In this study we present our experiences with the new technology of scintillometry for estimation of evapotranspiration over transects with lengths between 200 and 5,000 m. Large Aperture Scintillometers operating at optical wavelengths are employed to measure the sensible heat flux over dry
The goal of this study was to test if Asian long-range transport (ALRT) of pollutants can be obse... more The goal of this study was to test if Asian long-range transport (ALRT) of pollutants can be observed significantly inland in North America. Our point of observation is the Storm Peak Laboratory (SPL), a high-elevation mountaintop research facility (3200m asl) in the Rocky Mountains located 1500 km inland from the Pacific where near-coastal stations, such as Mt. Bachelor, have previously
ABSTRACT Laser-based analyses of concentration and isotopic content allow unprecedented temporal ... more ABSTRACT Laser-based analyses of concentration and isotopic content allow unprecedented temporal resolution for a number of important atmospheric constituents. Perhaps overlooked is the potential for these tools to also provide analyses in a more traditional "mass spectrometric" mode that is readily deployable in a field setting. Certain sampling regimes (e.g. soil profiles) are not appropriate for continuous sampling due to their slow change and disturbance of gradients caused by frequent/continuous sampling. We have modified the inlet and plumbing system of a commercial continuous flow cavity ring-down spectrometer in a manner that allows for 13C analyses of CO2 from syringe samples at volumes as small as 25 ml of air with ambient concentrations of CO2. The method employs an external high vacuum pump and a series of programmable micro-valves that allow for evacuation of the long-pass ring-down cell followed by controlled filling, via syringe, of the cavity to optimal sampling pressure and subsequent static analysis of CO2 concentration and 13C /13C ratios. The set-up is field deployable with modest power requirements and allows for near real time analysis in a variety of sampling environments and on-the-fly determination of sampling protocol. In its current configuration, the system provides precision of 1% for CO2 concentration and 0.3 permil for delta13C in replicate analyses of reference air. We have deployed the system to a field laboratory in central New Mexico near a controlled tree mortality research site where post-mortality ecosystem CO2 evolution is being studied. Results from the first field season will be presented and discussed.
ABSTRACT Three samples of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) were generated by reacting a-pinene and... more ABSTRACT Three samples of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) were generated by reacting a-pinene and ozone in the presence of variable concentrations of hydroxyl radical scavenging cyclohexane and were characterized by ultrahigh-resolution Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT ICR MS). The reactions were performed in the presence of different concentrations of hydroxyl radical scavenger. This provided an opportunity to examine the molecular level differences of SOA. More than 900 chemical formulas for negative ions were identified over the mass range of 100 to 820 u. The experimental reproducibility of the SOA composition and the technical reproducibility of the mass spectra were evaluated. Similar chemical formulas with similar relative abundances were observed in all three experiments. A few exceptions were particular high relative abundance signals such as m/z 357, 367 and 539, whose production efficiency increased in the presence of cyclohexane, and m/z 185, 199, 215, 231 and 261, whose production efficiency decreased in the presence of cyclohexane. In general, the composition of a-pinene SOA was only slightly influenced by the concentration of the hydroxyl radical scavenger, cyclohexane. The negative ion spectra of the SOA contained four groups of peaks over the following mass ranges: 150 < n < 300, 300 < n < 475, 475 < n < 600, 600 < n < 850. As the molecular weight increased, a variety of changes occurred. The number of individual compounds within one nominal mass increased. The range of oxygen to carbon and hydrogen ratios decreased from group I to IV. Likewise, the mean values of oxygen to carbon decreased from 0.55 to 0.42. The mean value of hydrogen to carbon, approximately 1.5, did not change with respect to molecular weight, although the range of values did decrease. The chemical formulas of groups I and II with the highest relative abundances contained 5-7 and 7-10 oxygen atoms and double bond equivalents (DBE) of 3-4 and 5-7, respectively. The chemical formulas of groups III and IV with the highest relative abundances contained 10-13 and 13-16 oxygen atoms and DBE values of 7-9 and 9-11, respectively. Several SOA accretion mechanisms cause increases of DBE of 2 or 3 and alter the O:C and H:C ratios in different ways. Observations of the oxygen content and the DBE of the SOA products suggest they resulted from a complex mixture of accretions, such as reactions of neutral molecules with hydroperoxy or criegee radicals, hemi-acetal reactions, aldol condensations or esterification reactions. To provide insight into the formation mechanisms, the molecular structures of selected group II compounds (300 < n < 475) were investigated using ultra-high resolution MS2.
ABSTRACT CO2 emissions from below ground carbon storage reservoirs can be difficult to discrimina... more ABSTRACT CO2 emissions from below ground carbon storage reservoirs can be difficult to discriminate from CO2 produced via natural plant and microbial respiration. However, because respiration produces CO2 and consumes O2 in an approximately 1:1 ratio, it is possible to characterize leakage sources by measurement of simultaneous changes of both O2 and CO2. This approach is complicated by the fact that O2 comprises approximately 21% of the atmosphere, while CO2 is only present in the background atmosphere at ~400 parts per million, making it necessary to accurately measure changes in O2 concentration to six significant figures. Here we describe a portable high precision oxygen measurement system that employs a modified commercial fuel cell analyzer to quantify small changes in O2 concentration. High precision is achieved through precise control of flow and pressure, allowing near part per million precision of O2 and CO2 concentrations. This system has been incorporated into a mobile laboratory and has been deployed to the ZERT controlled release site in Bozeman, Montana and to a natural analog CO2 leak at Soda Springs, Idaho. Samples were collected at ground level, 1 meter, and 3 meters above the CO2 source and are displayed as the ratio of the O2 difference relative to a reference to the CO2 difference in concentration relative to the same reference (ΔO2/ΔCO2). It was observed that at wind speeds ≤ 2 m/s, the ΔO2/ΔCO2 anomaly decreased with height and was still significantly different from background at 3 m. With increasing wind speed, ΔO2/ΔCO2 anomalies decreased to background levels at 1 and 3 m but remained detectable at the ground surface. We will discuss attempts to quantify the CO2 release rate utilizing the measured ΔO2/ΔCO2 elevation profiles and will present complementary eddy covariance data for comparison.
ABSTRACT In the semi-arid Southwestern US, seasonal drought has strengthened in recent years due ... more ABSTRACT In the semi-arid Southwestern US, seasonal drought has strengthened in recent years due to both a decrease in winter precipitation and delayed onset of the summer monsoon. A process-based understanding of ecosystem response to increased drought stress is vital to predicting the long-term stability of semi-arid biomes. To understand the processes responsible for inter-annual and seasonal variability in net ecosystem carbon and water fluxes, we compared nearly continuous measurements of ecosystem scale respiration (R_e) from an eddy covariance system with the stable carbon and oxygen isotope signals in ecosystem respired CO_2 (delta^{13}C_r and delta^{18}O_r) measured continuously by a tunable diode laser spectrometer (TDL) sampling at various canopy heights at the same site. The study site, at Los Alamos National Laboratory, converted from pitilde{n}on juniper woodland to juniper woodland after over 90% of pitilde{n}ons died in 2002-2003 following multiple years of enhanced drought leaving a high necromass at the site. We analyzed the relationships between the Bowen ratio, delta^{18}O_r, daily and annual accumulated NEE, and delta^{13}C_r to understand the (de)coupling between the response of transpiration and respiration under varying degrees of drought stress. Additionally, we explored the variability in the lag and intensity of ecosystem response to precipitation pulses depending on antecedent conditions. The response of delta^{18}O_r was more consistent across years and seasons whereas variability in the contribution of autotrophic versus heterotrophic respiration appeared to cause differing responses of delta^{13}C_r to drought stress and precipitation pulses. This result was supported by the diurnal CO_2 and H_2O fluxes indicating nearly immediate transpirational water loss initiated by most precipitation pulses. Annual accumulated precipitation (versus pulse size) was a better indicator of delta^{13}C_ r response (i.e. relative contributions of autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration) and daily NEE after a precipitation pulse.
ABSTRACT Arid and semi-arid ecosystems may be more vulnerable to climate change than mesic system... more ABSTRACT Arid and semi-arid ecosystems may be more vulnerable to climate change than mesic systems, having potentially large consequences for ecosystem carbon balance of the US southwest. Specifically, piñon-juniper woodlands cover much of the land area in the SW US, and they have experienced widespread piñon mortality in the past ten years. The impact of this mortality on carbon cycling in these ecosystems has yet to be fully examined. Of particular current interest is how soil temperature, soil moisture, and substrate availability interact to influence short-term variability of soil respiration rates. In this study, we examined the dependence of soil respiration on recent piñon photosynthate, temperature, and moisture in a piñon-juniper woodland in central New Mexico. We utilized phloem-girdling to study the importance of recently-fixed photosynthate as substrate for respiration, and we treated the stable carbon isotope ratio of soil respiration as indicative of different substrate sources contributing to soil respiration. Due to the presence of C3, C4, and CAM photosynthetic pathways in the ecosystem, we were able to infer changing contribution of different sources to soil respiration. We found that soil-respired delta13C depended on both soil moisture and lagged precipitation, although in dissimilar manners, suggesting different mechanisms are triggered by rainfall events compared to elevated soil moisture. C3-source respiration responded quickly to precipitation events. Over a ten-day period following girdling of piñon trees, soil-respired delta13C did not significantly change compared to a reference plot. There were also distinct differences in carbon isotope signatures and temporal patterns of such signatures of soil respiration collected in open spaces compared to underneath piñon canopies, emphasizing the importance of considering spatial variability when sampling soil-respired CO2 in patchy ecosystems. Overall, we found little evidence that soil respiration in this ecosystem depended strongly on recently-fixed photosynthate from piñon trees, and instead seemed to be largely regulated by precipitation events and soil moisture levels.
Carbon storage in geologic formations is one method to prevent carbon dioxide (CO2), produced by ... more Carbon storage in geologic formations is one method to prevent carbon dioxide (CO2), produced by fossil fuel combustion, from entering the Earth's atmosphere. The monitoring, verification and accounting (MVA) of geologically sequestered CO2 is critical to the operation of a geologic storage site. Surface MVA techniques need to identify seepage from the sequestration reservoir at or below ambient CO2 concentrations.
Piñon-juniper (PJ) woodlands, which occupy 24 million ha throughout the Southwest, proved to be e... more Piñon-juniper (PJ) woodlands, which occupy 24 million ha throughout the Southwest, proved to be extremely vulnerable to an extended drought that began in 1999, leading to an abrupt die-off of 40 to 95% of piñon pine (Pinus edulis) and 2-25% of juniper (Juniperus monosperma) in less than 3 years. Climate predictions for the region suggest such droughts are likely to
Laser-based analyses of concentration and isotopic content allow unprecedented temporal resolutio... more Laser-based analyses of concentration and isotopic content allow unprecedented temporal resolution for a number of important atmospheric constituents. Perhaps overlooked is the potential for these tools to also provide analyses in a more traditional "mass spectrometric" mode that is readily deployable in a field setting. Certain sampling regimes (e.g. soil profiles) are not appropriate for continuous sampling due to their
Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 2013
ABSTRACT The movement of moisture into, out-of, and within forest ecosystems is modulated by feed... more ABSTRACT The movement of moisture into, out-of, and within forest ecosystems is modulated by feedbacks that stem from processes which couple plants, soil, and the atmosphere. While an understanding of these processes has been gleaned from Eddy Covariance techniques, the reliability of the method suffers at night because of weak turbulence. During the summer of 2011, continuous profiles of the isotopic composition (i.e., δ18O and δD) of water vapor and periodic measurements of soil, leaf, and precipitation pools were measured in an open-canopy ponderosa pine forest in central Colorado to study within-canopy nocturnal water cycling. The isotopic composition of the nocturnal water vapor varies significantly based on the relative contributions of the three major hydrological processes acting on the forest: dewfall, exchange of moisture between leaf waters and canopy vapor, and periodic mixing between the canopy and background air. Dewfall proved to be surprisingly common (˜30% of the nights) and detectable on both the surface and within the canopy through the isotopic measurements. While surface dew could be observed using leaf wetness and soil moisture sensors, dew in the foliage was only measurable through isotopic analysis of the vapor and often occurred even when no dew accumulated on the surface. Nocturnal moisture cycling plays a critical role in water availability in forest ecosystems through foliar absorption and transpiration, and assessing these dynamics, as done here, is necessary for fully characterizing the hydrological controls on terrestrial productivity.
The estimation of spatial and temporal distributions of evapotranspiration is a long standing cha... more The estimation of spatial and temporal distributions of evapotranspiration is a long standing challenge for hydrologic science. In this study we present our experiences with the new technology of scintillometry for estimation of evapotranspiration over transects with lengths between 200 and 5,000 m. Large Aperture Scintillometers operating at optical wavelengths are employed to measure the sensible heat flux over dry
The goal of this study was to test if Asian long-range transport (ALRT) of pollutants can be obse... more The goal of this study was to test if Asian long-range transport (ALRT) of pollutants can be observed significantly inland in North America. Our point of observation is the Storm Peak Laboratory (SPL), a high-elevation mountaintop research facility (3200m asl) in the Rocky Mountains located 1500 km inland from the Pacific where near-coastal stations, such as Mt. Bachelor, have previously
ABSTRACT Laser-based analyses of concentration and isotopic content allow unprecedented temporal ... more ABSTRACT Laser-based analyses of concentration and isotopic content allow unprecedented temporal resolution for a number of important atmospheric constituents. Perhaps overlooked is the potential for these tools to also provide analyses in a more traditional "mass spectrometric" mode that is readily deployable in a field setting. Certain sampling regimes (e.g. soil profiles) are not appropriate for continuous sampling due to their slow change and disturbance of gradients caused by frequent/continuous sampling. We have modified the inlet and plumbing system of a commercial continuous flow cavity ring-down spectrometer in a manner that allows for 13C analyses of CO2 from syringe samples at volumes as small as 25 ml of air with ambient concentrations of CO2. The method employs an external high vacuum pump and a series of programmable micro-valves that allow for evacuation of the long-pass ring-down cell followed by controlled filling, via syringe, of the cavity to optimal sampling pressure and subsequent static analysis of CO2 concentration and 13C /13C ratios. The set-up is field deployable with modest power requirements and allows for near real time analysis in a variety of sampling environments and on-the-fly determination of sampling protocol. In its current configuration, the system provides precision of 1% for CO2 concentration and 0.3 permil for delta13C in replicate analyses of reference air. We have deployed the system to a field laboratory in central New Mexico near a controlled tree mortality research site where post-mortality ecosystem CO2 evolution is being studied. Results from the first field season will be presented and discussed.
ABSTRACT Three samples of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) were generated by reacting a-pinene and... more ABSTRACT Three samples of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) were generated by reacting a-pinene and ozone in the presence of variable concentrations of hydroxyl radical scavenging cyclohexane and were characterized by ultrahigh-resolution Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT ICR MS). The reactions were performed in the presence of different concentrations of hydroxyl radical scavenger. This provided an opportunity to examine the molecular level differences of SOA. More than 900 chemical formulas for negative ions were identified over the mass range of 100 to 820 u. The experimental reproducibility of the SOA composition and the technical reproducibility of the mass spectra were evaluated. Similar chemical formulas with similar relative abundances were observed in all three experiments. A few exceptions were particular high relative abundance signals such as m/z 357, 367 and 539, whose production efficiency increased in the presence of cyclohexane, and m/z 185, 199, 215, 231 and 261, whose production efficiency decreased in the presence of cyclohexane. In general, the composition of a-pinene SOA was only slightly influenced by the concentration of the hydroxyl radical scavenger, cyclohexane. The negative ion spectra of the SOA contained four groups of peaks over the following mass ranges: 150 < n < 300, 300 < n < 475, 475 < n < 600, 600 < n < 850. As the molecular weight increased, a variety of changes occurred. The number of individual compounds within one nominal mass increased. The range of oxygen to carbon and hydrogen ratios decreased from group I to IV. Likewise, the mean values of oxygen to carbon decreased from 0.55 to 0.42. The mean value of hydrogen to carbon, approximately 1.5, did not change with respect to molecular weight, although the range of values did decrease. The chemical formulas of groups I and II with the highest relative abundances contained 5-7 and 7-10 oxygen atoms and double bond equivalents (DBE) of 3-4 and 5-7, respectively. The chemical formulas of groups III and IV with the highest relative abundances contained 10-13 and 13-16 oxygen atoms and DBE values of 7-9 and 9-11, respectively. Several SOA accretion mechanisms cause increases of DBE of 2 or 3 and alter the O:C and H:C ratios in different ways. Observations of the oxygen content and the DBE of the SOA products suggest they resulted from a complex mixture of accretions, such as reactions of neutral molecules with hydroperoxy or criegee radicals, hemi-acetal reactions, aldol condensations or esterification reactions. To provide insight into the formation mechanisms, the molecular structures of selected group II compounds (300 < n < 475) were investigated using ultra-high resolution MS2.
ABSTRACT CO2 emissions from below ground carbon storage reservoirs can be difficult to discrimina... more ABSTRACT CO2 emissions from below ground carbon storage reservoirs can be difficult to discriminate from CO2 produced via natural plant and microbial respiration. However, because respiration produces CO2 and consumes O2 in an approximately 1:1 ratio, it is possible to characterize leakage sources by measurement of simultaneous changes of both O2 and CO2. This approach is complicated by the fact that O2 comprises approximately 21% of the atmosphere, while CO2 is only present in the background atmosphere at ~400 parts per million, making it necessary to accurately measure changes in O2 concentration to six significant figures. Here we describe a portable high precision oxygen measurement system that employs a modified commercial fuel cell analyzer to quantify small changes in O2 concentration. High precision is achieved through precise control of flow and pressure, allowing near part per million precision of O2 and CO2 concentrations. This system has been incorporated into a mobile laboratory and has been deployed to the ZERT controlled release site in Bozeman, Montana and to a natural analog CO2 leak at Soda Springs, Idaho. Samples were collected at ground level, 1 meter, and 3 meters above the CO2 source and are displayed as the ratio of the O2 difference relative to a reference to the CO2 difference in concentration relative to the same reference (ΔO2/ΔCO2). It was observed that at wind speeds ≤ 2 m/s, the ΔO2/ΔCO2 anomaly decreased with height and was still significantly different from background at 3 m. With increasing wind speed, ΔO2/ΔCO2 anomalies decreased to background levels at 1 and 3 m but remained detectable at the ground surface. We will discuss attempts to quantify the CO2 release rate utilizing the measured ΔO2/ΔCO2 elevation profiles and will present complementary eddy covariance data for comparison.
ABSTRACT In the semi-arid Southwestern US, seasonal drought has strengthened in recent years due ... more ABSTRACT In the semi-arid Southwestern US, seasonal drought has strengthened in recent years due to both a decrease in winter precipitation and delayed onset of the summer monsoon. A process-based understanding of ecosystem response to increased drought stress is vital to predicting the long-term stability of semi-arid biomes. To understand the processes responsible for inter-annual and seasonal variability in net ecosystem carbon and water fluxes, we compared nearly continuous measurements of ecosystem scale respiration (R_e) from an eddy covariance system with the stable carbon and oxygen isotope signals in ecosystem respired CO_2 (delta^{13}C_r and delta^{18}O_r) measured continuously by a tunable diode laser spectrometer (TDL) sampling at various canopy heights at the same site. The study site, at Los Alamos National Laboratory, converted from pitilde{n}on juniper woodland to juniper woodland after over 90% of pitilde{n}ons died in 2002-2003 following multiple years of enhanced drought leaving a high necromass at the site. We analyzed the relationships between the Bowen ratio, delta^{18}O_r, daily and annual accumulated NEE, and delta^{13}C_r to understand the (de)coupling between the response of transpiration and respiration under varying degrees of drought stress. Additionally, we explored the variability in the lag and intensity of ecosystem response to precipitation pulses depending on antecedent conditions. The response of delta^{18}O_r was more consistent across years and seasons whereas variability in the contribution of autotrophic versus heterotrophic respiration appeared to cause differing responses of delta^{13}C_r to drought stress and precipitation pulses. This result was supported by the diurnal CO_2 and H_2O fluxes indicating nearly immediate transpirational water loss initiated by most precipitation pulses. Annual accumulated precipitation (versus pulse size) was a better indicator of delta^{13}C_ r response (i.e. relative contributions of autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration) and daily NEE after a precipitation pulse.
ABSTRACT Arid and semi-arid ecosystems may be more vulnerable to climate change than mesic system... more ABSTRACT Arid and semi-arid ecosystems may be more vulnerable to climate change than mesic systems, having potentially large consequences for ecosystem carbon balance of the US southwest. Specifically, piñon-juniper woodlands cover much of the land area in the SW US, and they have experienced widespread piñon mortality in the past ten years. The impact of this mortality on carbon cycling in these ecosystems has yet to be fully examined. Of particular current interest is how soil temperature, soil moisture, and substrate availability interact to influence short-term variability of soil respiration rates. In this study, we examined the dependence of soil respiration on recent piñon photosynthate, temperature, and moisture in a piñon-juniper woodland in central New Mexico. We utilized phloem-girdling to study the importance of recently-fixed photosynthate as substrate for respiration, and we treated the stable carbon isotope ratio of soil respiration as indicative of different substrate sources contributing to soil respiration. Due to the presence of C3, C4, and CAM photosynthetic pathways in the ecosystem, we were able to infer changing contribution of different sources to soil respiration. We found that soil-respired delta13C depended on both soil moisture and lagged precipitation, although in dissimilar manners, suggesting different mechanisms are triggered by rainfall events compared to elevated soil moisture. C3-source respiration responded quickly to precipitation events. Over a ten-day period following girdling of piñon trees, soil-respired delta13C did not significantly change compared to a reference plot. There were also distinct differences in carbon isotope signatures and temporal patterns of such signatures of soil respiration collected in open spaces compared to underneath piñon canopies, emphasizing the importance of considering spatial variability when sampling soil-respired CO2 in patchy ecosystems. Overall, we found little evidence that soil respiration in this ecosystem depended strongly on recently-fixed photosynthate from piñon trees, and instead seemed to be largely regulated by precipitation events and soil moisture levels.
Carbon storage in geologic formations is one method to prevent carbon dioxide (CO2), produced by ... more Carbon storage in geologic formations is one method to prevent carbon dioxide (CO2), produced by fossil fuel combustion, from entering the Earth's atmosphere. The monitoring, verification and accounting (MVA) of geologically sequestered CO2 is critical to the operation of a geologic storage site. Surface MVA techniques need to identify seepage from the sequestration reservoir at or below ambient CO2 concentrations.
Piñon-juniper (PJ) woodlands, which occupy 24 million ha throughout the Southwest, proved to be e... more Piñon-juniper (PJ) woodlands, which occupy 24 million ha throughout the Southwest, proved to be extremely vulnerable to an extended drought that began in 1999, leading to an abrupt die-off of 40 to 95% of piñon pine (Pinus edulis) and 2-25% of juniper (Juniperus monosperma) in less than 3 years. Climate predictions for the region suggest such droughts are likely to
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Papers by T. Rahn