The Destombes astrolabe is considered the oldest astrolabe with Latin inscriptions. The instrumen... more The Destombes astrolabe is considered the oldest astrolabe with Latin inscriptions. The instrument is obviously a "translation" of an Arabic original from Muslim Spain. Palaeographic studies have interpreted it as a work of 10th-century Catalonia. A Visigothic character on the mater of the astrolabe, however, rather suggests that it was produced by a Mozarab in Al-Andalus. Further studies show that the Arabic original that served as the basis for the Latin copy must have been made in the middle of the 10th century in Al-Andalus, modelled on the Oriental astrolabes. The display of higher latitudes as well as the inscription "Roma et Francia" place the Destombes astrolabe in the context of contemporary diplomatic missions and commercial journeys that were dispatched from Al-Andalus to Francia.
Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 2023
Sporadic records testify to the existence of Muslim slaves in Catalonia as early as in the mid-te... more Sporadic records testify to the existence of Muslim slaves in Catalonia as early as in the mid-tenth century. Called "Saracens" in the documents, members of this group served in the court of the Count of Barcelona and on the estates of the Bishop of Urgell, as well as in a private orchard near the capital. The slaves were captured from Al-Andalus at a time when the Catalan counties were still militarily inferior to their Muslim neighbours. We can identify two warriors as possible slave raiders, who apparently conducted crossborder razzias at the head of small units of mounted troops. They sold the people they captured at the local market. The Saracens could also be exchanged for Christian captives or sent back to Al-Andalus for ransom at a price customary in the whole Islamic world.
Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 2023
Between 957 and 1040, land purchases in Catalonia were often settled in pesas. This term denoted ... more Between 957 and 1040, land purchases in Catalonia were often settled in pesas. This term denoted a unit of account equalling two ounces of gold or ten of silver. Both precious metals came to Catalonia from Al-Andalus in the form of dinars and dirhams. However, for many years these coins were traded not according to their nominal value, but according to their metal weight. Frankish regulations, requiring foreign currencies to be converted into local deniers, provided the legal framework. The pesa system, created by the Counts of Barcelona, allowed Andalusi coins to be traded in domestic transactions as well as in bilateral trade with Al-Andalus. This policy shows the degree to which the Catalan Counties had become alienated from the West Frankish Kingdom to which they officially belonged.
Around the year 1000, in addition to local currency, dirhams from al-Andalus circulated in Barcel... more Around the year 1000, in addition to local currency, dirhams from al-Andalus circulated in Barcelona, which were called caceminos in documents. This name imitated the Arabic designation darāhim qāsimiyya, reminiscent of Córdoba's famous mint master, Qāsim ibn Ḫālid. Furthermore, three local documents testify to the use of silver coins called exarachellos. Based on philological considerations, this word can be deciphered as a nickname of the dirham, formed from the Arabic word for shine (al-šaraq) and the Romanic diminutive ending-ello. In allusion to their silvery shine, the dirhams in al-Andalus could have been referred to as *al-šaraq-ellos ("little shiners"), a nickname later transmitted to Barcelona in the course of close bilateral contacts.
The French clergyman Gerbert of Aurillac, later to become Pope Sylvester II, is said to have repr... more The French clergyman Gerbert of Aurillac, later to become Pope Sylvester II, is said to have represented all numbers with only "nine symbols" on his abacus and is therefore regarded as the one who brought the Arabic numerals to Europe. In his own writings, however, he only used the Roman numerals. Early illustrations of Arabic numerals appear in Europe around the year 1000 in the Abacus treatise of Bernelinus of Paris, who was probably a pupil of Gerbert. In two manuscripts of his "Liber abaci" the number "3" is displayed in a peculiar shape, reminiscent of the sign for "three" in Roman shorthand. Since Gerbert used this shorthand, the sign in question could be an indication of his role in the introduction of the new numbers. In the further course of the study an attempt is made to retrace the possible course of the transmission of Arabic numerals from Muslim Spain to Europe.
In one of his letters of the year 984, Gerbert of Aurillac, the later Pope Sylvester II, asks a c... more In one of his letters of the year 984, Gerbert of Aurillac, the later Pope Sylvester II, asks a certain Lupitus of Barcelona for his translation of a book on astronomy. This translator has so far been identified with Seniofred Llobet, who was by that time the archdeacon of Barcelona cathedral. A thorough examination of the letter as well as of other contemporary sources, however, precludes the archdeacon from this identification. The translator Lupitus must rather have been a Mozarabic clergyman who immigrated from Muslim Spain, from where he probably brought with him the Arabic original for his translation. This paper intends to throw some light on a hitherto poorly studied stage of the transmission process that brought the astrolabe from Al-Andalus to Europe.
Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 2018
Rafica, an enigmatic customs duty recorded in several charters issued by West Frankish kings duri... more Rafica, an enigmatic customs duty recorded in several charters issued by West Frankish kings during the 9 th and 10 th centuries, can be traced back to its original Arabic meaning, caravan. This leads to the conclusion that a regular transit trade existed between West Francia and Muslim Spain (Al-Andalus) that was operated by caravans. The merchants of Verdun assured this lucrative trade, bringing Slavonic slaves, Cornish tin and Frankish swords to Al-Andalus, then importing silk, leather, and substances as crimson, saffron and ambergris on the return journey. Two main routes for this trade can be established, one connecting Verdun with Barcelona along the rivers Saône and Rhône, the other leading through the western regions of France touching Paris, Angers, Bordeaux and Toulouse. All rafica caravans entered Al-Andalus through a crossing point southwest of Barcelona, leading to the Andalusian border town of Tortosa. At several customs stations along their way, the caravans had to pay a specific duty named after the Arabic word rafica.
Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 2016
Seven persons recorded in Barcelona between 986 and 1021 are sometimes marked as “Greeks” by the ... more Seven persons recorded in Barcelona between 986 and 1021 are sometimes marked as “Greeks” by the scribes. Bearing local names and owning houses “intra muros”, they appear well integrated into the local society. One of them was a judge, two others ranked among the “boni homines”. The local charters do not mention, however, any connection of this group to international trade. The chronicle “Al-Muqtabas” of the Andalusian historian Ibn Hayyan offers new perspectives reporting a free trade agreement (“Aman”) between the Caliph of Cordova and the ruler of Naples in 940 which was negotiated in Barcelona. Two years later, the first visit of Amalfitan traders to Cordova took place. The Caliphate of Cordova must have been looking for an alternative trading connection with the Islamic east as the rivalling fatimid Caliphs in Tunisia were trying to disrupt the traditional route along the North African coast. The services of Amalfi, well known for its oriental connections, were a solution and Barcelona seems to have become an important hub with a “Greek” trading colony.
The Destombes astrolabe is considered the oldest astrolabe with Latin inscriptions. The instrumen... more The Destombes astrolabe is considered the oldest astrolabe with Latin inscriptions. The instrument is obviously a "translation" of an Arabic original from Muslim Spain. Palaeographic studies have interpreted it as a work of 10th-century Catalonia. A Visigothic character on the mater of the astrolabe, however, rather suggests that it was produced by a Mozarab in Al-Andalus. Further studies show that the Arabic original that served as the basis for the Latin copy must have been made in the middle of the 10th century in Al-Andalus, modelled on the Oriental astrolabes. The display of higher latitudes as well as the inscription "Roma et Francia" place the Destombes astrolabe in the context of contemporary diplomatic missions and commercial journeys that were dispatched from Al-Andalus to Francia.
Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 2023
Sporadic records testify to the existence of Muslim slaves in Catalonia as early as in the mid-te... more Sporadic records testify to the existence of Muslim slaves in Catalonia as early as in the mid-tenth century. Called "Saracens" in the documents, members of this group served in the court of the Count of Barcelona and on the estates of the Bishop of Urgell, as well as in a private orchard near the capital. The slaves were captured from Al-Andalus at a time when the Catalan counties were still militarily inferior to their Muslim neighbours. We can identify two warriors as possible slave raiders, who apparently conducted crossborder razzias at the head of small units of mounted troops. They sold the people they captured at the local market. The Saracens could also be exchanged for Christian captives or sent back to Al-Andalus for ransom at a price customary in the whole Islamic world.
Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 2023
Between 957 and 1040, land purchases in Catalonia were often settled in pesas. This term denoted ... more Between 957 and 1040, land purchases in Catalonia were often settled in pesas. This term denoted a unit of account equalling two ounces of gold or ten of silver. Both precious metals came to Catalonia from Al-Andalus in the form of dinars and dirhams. However, for many years these coins were traded not according to their nominal value, but according to their metal weight. Frankish regulations, requiring foreign currencies to be converted into local deniers, provided the legal framework. The pesa system, created by the Counts of Barcelona, allowed Andalusi coins to be traded in domestic transactions as well as in bilateral trade with Al-Andalus. This policy shows the degree to which the Catalan Counties had become alienated from the West Frankish Kingdom to which they officially belonged.
Around the year 1000, in addition to local currency, dirhams from al-Andalus circulated in Barcel... more Around the year 1000, in addition to local currency, dirhams from al-Andalus circulated in Barcelona, which were called caceminos in documents. This name imitated the Arabic designation darāhim qāsimiyya, reminiscent of Córdoba's famous mint master, Qāsim ibn Ḫālid. Furthermore, three local documents testify to the use of silver coins called exarachellos. Based on philological considerations, this word can be deciphered as a nickname of the dirham, formed from the Arabic word for shine (al-šaraq) and the Romanic diminutive ending-ello. In allusion to their silvery shine, the dirhams in al-Andalus could have been referred to as *al-šaraq-ellos ("little shiners"), a nickname later transmitted to Barcelona in the course of close bilateral contacts.
The French clergyman Gerbert of Aurillac, later to become Pope Sylvester II, is said to have repr... more The French clergyman Gerbert of Aurillac, later to become Pope Sylvester II, is said to have represented all numbers with only "nine symbols" on his abacus and is therefore regarded as the one who brought the Arabic numerals to Europe. In his own writings, however, he only used the Roman numerals. Early illustrations of Arabic numerals appear in Europe around the year 1000 in the Abacus treatise of Bernelinus of Paris, who was probably a pupil of Gerbert. In two manuscripts of his "Liber abaci" the number "3" is displayed in a peculiar shape, reminiscent of the sign for "three" in Roman shorthand. Since Gerbert used this shorthand, the sign in question could be an indication of his role in the introduction of the new numbers. In the further course of the study an attempt is made to retrace the possible course of the transmission of Arabic numerals from Muslim Spain to Europe.
In one of his letters of the year 984, Gerbert of Aurillac, the later Pope Sylvester II, asks a c... more In one of his letters of the year 984, Gerbert of Aurillac, the later Pope Sylvester II, asks a certain Lupitus of Barcelona for his translation of a book on astronomy. This translator has so far been identified with Seniofred Llobet, who was by that time the archdeacon of Barcelona cathedral. A thorough examination of the letter as well as of other contemporary sources, however, precludes the archdeacon from this identification. The translator Lupitus must rather have been a Mozarabic clergyman who immigrated from Muslim Spain, from where he probably brought with him the Arabic original for his translation. This paper intends to throw some light on a hitherto poorly studied stage of the transmission process that brought the astrolabe from Al-Andalus to Europe.
Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 2018
Rafica, an enigmatic customs duty recorded in several charters issued by West Frankish kings duri... more Rafica, an enigmatic customs duty recorded in several charters issued by West Frankish kings during the 9 th and 10 th centuries, can be traced back to its original Arabic meaning, caravan. This leads to the conclusion that a regular transit trade existed between West Francia and Muslim Spain (Al-Andalus) that was operated by caravans. The merchants of Verdun assured this lucrative trade, bringing Slavonic slaves, Cornish tin and Frankish swords to Al-Andalus, then importing silk, leather, and substances as crimson, saffron and ambergris on the return journey. Two main routes for this trade can be established, one connecting Verdun with Barcelona along the rivers Saône and Rhône, the other leading through the western regions of France touching Paris, Angers, Bordeaux and Toulouse. All rafica caravans entered Al-Andalus through a crossing point southwest of Barcelona, leading to the Andalusian border town of Tortosa. At several customs stations along their way, the caravans had to pay a specific duty named after the Arabic word rafica.
Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 2016
Seven persons recorded in Barcelona between 986 and 1021 are sometimes marked as “Greeks” by the ... more Seven persons recorded in Barcelona between 986 and 1021 are sometimes marked as “Greeks” by the scribes. Bearing local names and owning houses “intra muros”, they appear well integrated into the local society. One of them was a judge, two others ranked among the “boni homines”. The local charters do not mention, however, any connection of this group to international trade. The chronicle “Al-Muqtabas” of the Andalusian historian Ibn Hayyan offers new perspectives reporting a free trade agreement (“Aman”) between the Caliph of Cordova and the ruler of Naples in 940 which was negotiated in Barcelona. Two years later, the first visit of Amalfitan traders to Cordova took place. The Caliphate of Cordova must have been looking for an alternative trading connection with the Islamic east as the rivalling fatimid Caliphs in Tunisia were trying to disrupt the traditional route along the North African coast. The services of Amalfi, well known for its oriental connections, were a solution and Barcelona seems to have become an important hub with a “Greek” trading colony.
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