M.A. & Ph.D in Buddhist Studies. PB Tan lives in Kuching. He has authored an analytical series of the canonical texts of Theravāda Abhidhamma Piṭaka. He has also translated with commentaries of these Mahāyāna scriptures : Saṃdhinirmocana-Sūtra, Mahāyānasaṃgrāha-Śāstra, Mahāyānābhidharma-samuccaya, Laṅkāvatāra-Sūtra, Shurangama Sutra, and so on.
The ultimate objective of Buddhism is the conquest of the afflictions of existence (dukkha) to at... more The ultimate objective of Buddhism is the conquest of the afflictions of existence (dukkha) to attain perfect happiness in life, by following the noble path of the Four Noble Truths. The Buddha attributed a large part of the human suffering to the psychological roots of wickedness (akusalamula) in terms of greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha). It is the eradication of these roots of unwholesome motivation that is sought as the goal of the Buddhist way of liberation in life (nibbāna). It is in light of this selfless universal goal of Buddhism that this paper attempts to explore the relevance and implications of Buddhist values as a solution to current issues of world conflicts, worsening moral decadency, “philosophy way of life”, the increasing poverty-induced crimes and violence in undeveloped countries, and its alleviation by considering viable alternatives. This paper also suggest recommendation of changes that may be necessarily needed within the Buddhist community, in attempt to reinforce unity as well as the necessity of adapting Buddhism to the needs of the modern societies particularly when Buddhism has just begun vigorously to make in-roads to the western civilizations in the very recent decades. Buddhism has transformed in scope and contents throughout the last two millennia through the changing needs of civilizations, and unless Buddhists can adapt to today’s complex situations through intelligent changes, the tenacity of lineage attachment and retentive stubbornness will not only fail to benefit more people but such steadfast refusal and folly may also precipitate its fate of eventual fall.
禅门不假文字、不必经拜忏、念经、念佛、持咒、坐禅来修持，不假思索不必外求，但知自识本心，本自圆成，自见本性，即心即佛。但因为常人习于见色着色、起相，念念迁流，心猿意马，念念想事业家庭，利害关系，... more 禅门不假文字、不必经拜忏、念经、念佛、持咒、坐禅来修持，不假思索不必外求，但知自识本心，本自圆成，自见本性，即心即佛。但因为常人习于见色着色、起相，念念迁流，心猿意马，念念想事业家庭，利害关系，执于己见，妄想分别，故顿悟自了一门，非上根器者，见性惟艰，到最后徒劳一生之修行，故还须依经教，从般若修持上渐次悟入空性智海。所以这也是本人侧重于坐禅静虑修定，以空性般若为最先决必备条件。
The scope of this article encompass ascertaining the sequence in the historical compilation of th... more The scope of this article encompass ascertaining the sequence in the historical compilation of the three Piṭakas of Pāli texts, and to a lesser extent exploring the origins of certain texts or passages wihch may be attributable to certain schismatic schools. Because of the limitation of space, the broad history in regard to the reasons and details of primarily the first five Theravada Buddhist Councils will not be dealt with in meticulous strokes in this writing. Similarly, controversial issues that have already been explored by many scholarships as to the authenticity of texts, and the type of languages that were used in the specific Buddhist Councils and later on into writings, will also fall outside the ambit of this writing. In view of the difficulties of research work that is required as the title name of this paper suggests, particularly on the aspect of tracing similar passages that are used repeatedly within a single Piṭaka as well as in the other two, I therefore would limit my survey into the closing dates of the main collections of the three Piṭakas.
写此论题的因缘要回溯到2013年初。是因由于一善信在听了某法师开示之后，向我驳斥在南传教义里释尊根本没说及诸方如来及圣众菩萨、十位地等事，坚持大乘法义属非佛说，诋谤法师妄语。今时尚多如是无知之众... more 写此论题的因缘要回溯到2013年初。是因由于一善信在听了某法师开示之后，向我驳斥在南传教义里释尊根本没说及诸方如来及圣众菩萨、十位地等事，坚持大乘法义属非佛说，诋谤法师妄语。今时尚多如是无知之众。也刚好正是我佛学硕士班之首个学期，怀着一股强盛的探究心，自觉有必要对此一课题加以探讨，解疑释惑，他日亦可作于宣化疑辈。文中之考究不免会有许多属争论性之说，但以篇幅有碍，删繁就简，故不便详续。
大乘菩萨道转变了原始佛教单纯追求个人解脱的狭隘价值观念，而代之以自利利他、普度有情的价值取向。大乘菩萨道的价值观念是反映在菩萨崇高的理想人格，和对无上菩提的追求方面。原始佛教是以阿罗汉为修行的最... more 大乘菩萨道转变了原始佛教单纯追求个人解脱的狭隘价值观念，而代之以自利利他、普度有情的价值取向。大乘菩萨道的价值观念是反映在菩萨崇高的理想人格，和对无上菩提的追求方面。原始佛教是以阿罗汉为修行的最高果位，以“涅盘”为终极的目标，而大乘佛教却以“无住涅盘”为宗趣，以菩萨道作为实践利乐有情的价值主体。在考究大乘菩萨道思想的兴起时，不应该只是归咎于早期各部派，大、小乘之间的对峙而展开。因此，本章除了讲述大乘菩萨道的起源、信仰意义、特点、先决条件、菩萨行的标准，也探导了原始佛教经论里确实也蕴含了大乘菩萨道教义的信息资料，也揭示出北传大乘与印度原始佛教之间关于菩萨道立场的相同见解和一致的终极目标，尤其目的也在启迪不同传承的信仰者或初学者，能够从中理解而放弃偏狭的门户之见。南北本一家，皆源自释尊的教诫，无须为了历史各部派、各宗的意见分歧、承袭的误解与错解、或一知半解，自已更是执着已见与盲从，继续成为“凶险迷途中的羔羊”，终无法见性。
佛法是饶益众生，以根绝烦恼为究竟，是一种宗教性兼人生哲学的高明心理学疗法，是治疗心病的药方。所以佛法僧三宝就一直被比喻为医王、医方、医师，透过佛法来治疗现代人的身心疾病、人生意义乃至生死问题。此... more 佛法是饶益众生，以根绝烦恼为究竟，是一种宗教性兼人生哲学的高明心理学疗法，是治疗心病的药方。所以佛法僧三宝就一直被比喻为医王、医方、医师，透过佛法来治疗现代人的身心疾病、人生意义乃至生死问题。此文章正是要籍此让能更加了解南传佛法心理学范畴内的有关心理活动的逻辑法则，尤其在历缘对境、起心动念、或面对困境、恼怒考验的情况，能懂得如何对应处理，历境炼心，作为身心修养的借鉴，甚至可助人开解精神上的自缚桎梏，辅助启发智慧和解脱我执、我见诸烦恼障。本文主要是依据佛陀所教导的主要原始佛教要义，包括四蕴、四念住、八十九心、五十二心所法等，作为主要的探讨内容，并以南传上座部为主，意趋于探索佛教心理学的实践层面。然而，单这一些要义，尤其心法、心所法，其理义深奥，非从详述，则难以会达，但以此章篇幅有碍，只得作为浅述，然法义注释足可引为另行深入考究。
The vast store of the Pāli Commentaries not only had largely been ignored in the research underta... more The vast store of the Pāli Commentaries not only had largely been ignored in the research undertakings due to their lack of translation into the popular modern languages, but mainly also because of the difficult task of the Commentarial translation itself. However, the importance of Pali Commentarial literature can not be under-estimated. Different scholars have defined the scope of aṭṭhakathā on different basis with varied interpretations. To the extent that the origins of the aṭṭhakathā may well be traced to the time of the Buddha himself, it is still, however, dependent on whether the terms or words in question can be authenticated in consistence with those expositions in the main canonical texts. Although we have seen some literary facts and archaeological findings from past scholarships that have may have indicated evidentially to us the original sources and starting period of the Pāli Commentaries, the important question as to confirming exactly which canonical texts and Commentaries were available particularly at the time of the Third Buddhist Synod in Pāṭaliputta in the 3rd century B.C., regrettably, remains today as unassuredly as we were before.
Sigmund Freud explains the Unconscious as a crucial and intermediate link to our Ego and the real... more Sigmund Freud explains the Unconscious as a crucial and intermediate link to our Ego and the reality Conscious of the external world. He draws on the threefold division of the psychic self—the Id (Latin for “it”), the Ego, and Superego—base on which I associate them with the Unconscious, Preconscious, and Conscious respectively. Among the three, the Unconscious is the most mysterious realm in the mind-brain relation. Thus this article will only examine the Unconscious in the context of dreams, by making critical comparison between the Freudian study of it and the Buddhist perspective particularly from the Theravada Tipiṭaka. The first part will dwell on explanation of the Unconscious relative to the Id and Ego forces, characteristics of the Id, examples of the embedded Unconscious, and the possible Buddhist renderings of the Unconscious. The later part will explore the behavioral traits and mechanism of the Unconscious in the process of dreams, to attempt an interpretation of dreams, and discuss to what extent dreams are affected by the id-forces of unconscious—from the Theravada Buddhist stand point and also from the descriptive level of quantum theory.
实际上有许多人在受了沙弥戒、比丘戒、菩萨戒之后，对行证菩萨道的真正涵义却还是很含糊，包括我在内。择写本章的原因，除了要探讨南、北传之间对菩萨道思想的不同见解、定义标准、引证、修证方法、条件、发展... more 实际上有许多人在受了沙弥戒、比丘戒、菩萨戒之后，对行证菩萨道的真正涵义却还是很含糊，包括我在内。择写本章的原因，除了要探讨南、北传之间对菩萨道思想的不同见解、定义标准、引证、修证方法、条件、发展演变、障碍等，也是希望藉此探析能更加了解一个健全菩萨道的修行所应该避免的失误或偏颇事项，从而能检讨自身的修行方法是否也有偏失和缺备，以及如何能加以纠正或补充。尤其在最后对“八尊法”的探究，是一直都在认为，在众弟子努力推广南传菩萨道思想、菩萨行神圣精神的当前，古印度的“八尊法”显然是已不适合于新时代现实生活的需要，更何况是要推广到各国不同的民族与文化里去。
Most non-Buddhists believe that the concept of kamma is far too abstract, mystical, illusive, or ... more Most non-Buddhists believe that the concept of kamma is far too abstract, mystical, illusive, or even delusive. With this in mind, this article aims at doing a service to humanity by providing an elementary ground work for further research on the study of kamma philosophy using scientific approach. I will introduce in the first chapter the definitions and concepts of kamma in the Buddha’s own words, follow by describing the important characteristics and the misconceptions of kamma. The second chapter will explain the important phenomena of the Quantum Mechanics that are supposedly useful in interpreting the process of Kamma. These phenomenal elements will also recur in the subsequent chapter. I will make bold attempt in chapter 3 to associate the understanding of the kamma process with some of the relevant quantum theories (descriptive) by the different physicists.
从表层的意义来看，禅教合一，是说禅宗和教门各派的融合和统一，但实际上这禅教一致是代表佛教内部的统一。遗憾的是，古今中外佛教界只有少数人去重视这种统一的问题，人们还在热衷于各自宗派之争论，禅教之间... more 从表层的意义来看，禅教合一，是说禅宗和教门各派的融合和统一，但实际上这禅教一致是代表佛教内部的统一。遗憾的是，古今中外佛教界只有少数人去重视这种统一的问题，人们还在热衷于各自宗派之争论，禅教之间，互不融通。今时处于末法时期，邪师邪见、附佛外道泛滥，基督、依斯兰教、各种新兴神教迅速林立扩展，排佛之声络绎不绝。反观佛教内部的分裂，从印度佛教割裂至二十个部派之多，及中国禅宗至宗密时代，分裂至大小百多家，再衰减到五家七派，加上教门之天台、华严、唯识、三论、净土、密宗、律宗，各家本身内部也分门别类，相持不下，继续分裂，看者痛惜，据于此局面，才对此一大事论题，集心作一探讨。首先，我从禅教于修行上的定义、认知、误解，和古德大师对禅教一致的崇尙事迹方面来分析说明。文中也讨论了近代禅宗对禅教融通的看法和演变作风，和禅教融合过程方面将面对的障碍。最后再概括了主张从诸了义经之至极了义、佛陀的一心、本旨精神方面，来对禅教一致的合理性、必要性，加于详细阐述。
This book contains four scriptures of the Buddha’s teachings and detailed explanations on transce... more This book contains four scriptures of the Buddha’s teachings and detailed explanations on transcendental knowledge and noble wisdom as requisite for the peerless perfect enlightenment. Contents of the Buddha’s instructions are primarily focused on ways of meditational practice and effective contemplation in the normal daily routines, for the purpose of realising instant awakening, and ultimately for consummation of the unsurpassed supreme enlightenment of Buddhahood.
Śūraṃgama-sūtra is a scripture that expounds the ultimate truths as well as is a meditation manua... more Śūraṃgama-sūtra is a scripture that expounds the ultimate truths as well as is a meditation manual of explicit details, which is indispensable for the true practice of every serious yogin. A good understanding of the Śūraṃgama-sūtra would help the meditation practitioners to gain thorough insight into the verities of life; to keep them from losing sight of the hidden nature of the wondrous true mind within the daily experiences of themselves; to make for quick advancement in their practices for purification of their minds; and to realise the noble knowledge and wisdom in the Path of unsurpassed perfect enlightenment.
Laṅkāvatāra-Sūtra, translated by bhikṣu Venerable Guṇabhadra, is one of classical sourcebooks of ... more Laṅkāvatāra-Sūtra, translated by bhikṣu Venerable Guṇabhadra, is one of classical sourcebooks of the Vijñānavāda school, is also the main thrust of spiritual cultivation of the Chan and Zen schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The text is a quintessence of the Buddha’s explication of the tainted and purified aspects of mind. The catechetical contents center on core Mahāyāna principles, are subsumed under four categories of subjects as the five dharmas, the three inherent natures, the eight forms of consciousness, and the two aspects of selflessness.
The Abhidharma-samuccaya is a systemic explication of the Abhidharma teaching of all core princip... more The Abhidharma-samuccaya is a systemic explication of the Abhidharma teaching of all core principles of Buddhism. It is one of the important sourcebooks of the Yogācāra and Vijñānavāda schools. The treatise contains two divisions with four sections in each, is a distillation of the larger contents of the same two divisions of the voluminous Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra. A large part of the contents illuminates also teachings common to the Śrāvakayāna and Pratyekabuddhayāna, just when it explains principles that apply to Bodhisattvas. The text analyses the three classes of phenomena, the thirty-seven requisite factors of enlightenment, full scope of the mental factors, insight meditation and so on, with many different ways to examine them, to efficaciously apply them to practice.
Mahāyānasaṃgrāha-śāstra, by patriarch Venerable Asaṅga, is an important Abhidharma treatise of th... more Mahāyānasaṃgrāha-śāstra, by patriarch Venerable Asaṅga, is an important Abhidharma treatise of the Yogācāra school of the Indian Mahāyāna tradition, as well as the Dharmalakṣaṇa denomination or Vijñānavāda of the Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism. The ten Chapters of the text encompass elucidation of all core principles of the Mahāyāna teachings, including ālayavijñāna, manasvijñāna, their relationship with the six sense-cognitions, the three inherent natures of realities, the nature of mere-conscious-constructions, meditational insight, practice of the ten pāramitā ways, the ten stages of Bodhisattvas’ cultivation, types of nirvāṇa, realisation and fruitions of the Buddha-hood.
Saṃdhinirmocana-Sūtra is a Buddhist scripture which explicates the profound and complete meanings... more Saṃdhinirmocana-Sūtra is a Buddhist scripture which explicates the profound and complete meanings hidden in all those other scriptures that are incomplete with covert connotations for the different reasons. This text is the classical sourcebook of the earliest system of thought of the Yogācāra school. It is also one of the several texts that form the bedrock of the thinking of the Buddhist Vijñānavāda school. This scripture, with the exception of its Introduction section, is also part of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra.
As the most voluminous and important text of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, the Paṭṭhāna applies the sche... more As the most voluminous and important text of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, the Paṭṭhāna applies the scheme of twenty-four conditional relations to deal with the manifold conditionality of all the mental and physical phenomena of existence. This book reveals in great details of the conditional relations of momentarily passing mental-material phenomenal realities at moment of rebirth-linking, in the continuity of life, and at moment of death. The principle of conditionality taught in the Paṭṭhāna applies to every aspect of our day-to-day lives, in all moments of our interactions with things and people around us. Dozens of charts are created in this book to facilitate better understanding of the different parts of the teaching.
The ultimate objective of Buddhism is the conquest of the afflictions of existence (dukkha) to at... more The ultimate objective of Buddhism is the conquest of the afflictions of existence (dukkha) to attain perfect happiness in life, by following the noble path of the Four Noble Truths. The Buddha attributed a large part of the human suffering to the psychological roots of wickedness (akusalamula) in terms of greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha). It is the eradication of these roots of unwholesome motivation that is sought as the goal of the Buddhist way of liberation in life (nibbāna). It is in light of this selfless universal goal of Buddhism that this paper attempts to explore the relevance and implications of Buddhist values as a solution to current issues of world conflicts, worsening moral decadency, “philosophy way of life”, the increasing poverty-induced crimes and violence in undeveloped countries, and its alleviation by considering viable alternatives. This paper also suggest recommendation of changes that may be necessarily needed within the Buddhist community, in attempt to reinforce unity as well as the necessity of adapting Buddhism to the needs of the modern societies particularly when Buddhism has just begun vigorously to make in-roads to the western civilizations in the very recent decades. Buddhism has transformed in scope and contents throughout the last two millennia through the changing needs of civilizations, and unless Buddhists can adapt to today’s complex situations through intelligent changes, the tenacity of lineage attachment and retentive stubbornness will not only fail to benefit more people but such steadfast refusal and folly may also precipitate its fate of eventual fall.
禅门不假文字、不必经拜忏、念经、念佛、持咒、坐禅来修持，不假思索不必外求，但知自识本心，本自圆成，自见本性，即心即佛。但因为常人习于见色着色、起相，念念迁流，心猿意马，念念想事业家庭，利害关系，... more 禅门不假文字、不必经拜忏、念经、念佛、持咒、坐禅来修持，不假思索不必外求，但知自识本心，本自圆成，自见本性，即心即佛。但因为常人习于见色着色、起相，念念迁流，心猿意马，念念想事业家庭，利害关系，执于己见，妄想分别，故顿悟自了一门，非上根器者，见性惟艰，到最后徒劳一生之修行，故还须依经教，从般若修持上渐次悟入空性智海。所以这也是本人侧重于坐禅静虑修定，以空性般若为最先决必备条件。
The scope of this article encompass ascertaining the sequence in the historical compilation of th... more The scope of this article encompass ascertaining the sequence in the historical compilation of the three Piṭakas of Pāli texts, and to a lesser extent exploring the origins of certain texts or passages wihch may be attributable to certain schismatic schools. Because of the limitation of space, the broad history in regard to the reasons and details of primarily the first five Theravada Buddhist Councils will not be dealt with in meticulous strokes in this writing. Similarly, controversial issues that have already been explored by many scholarships as to the authenticity of texts, and the type of languages that were used in the specific Buddhist Councils and later on into writings, will also fall outside the ambit of this writing. In view of the difficulties of research work that is required as the title name of this paper suggests, particularly on the aspect of tracing similar passages that are used repeatedly within a single Piṭaka as well as in the other two, I therefore would limit my survey into the closing dates of the main collections of the three Piṭakas.
写此论题的因缘要回溯到2013年初。是因由于一善信在听了某法师开示之后，向我驳斥在南传教义里释尊根本没说及诸方如来及圣众菩萨、十位地等事，坚持大乘法义属非佛说，诋谤法师妄语。今时尚多如是无知之众... more 写此论题的因缘要回溯到2013年初。是因由于一善信在听了某法师开示之后，向我驳斥在南传教义里释尊根本没说及诸方如来及圣众菩萨、十位地等事，坚持大乘法义属非佛说，诋谤法师妄语。今时尚多如是无知之众。也刚好正是我佛学硕士班之首个学期，怀着一股强盛的探究心，自觉有必要对此一课题加以探讨，解疑释惑，他日亦可作于宣化疑辈。文中之考究不免会有许多属争论性之说，但以篇幅有碍，删繁就简，故不便详续。
大乘菩萨道转变了原始佛教单纯追求个人解脱的狭隘价值观念，而代之以自利利他、普度有情的价值取向。大乘菩萨道的价值观念是反映在菩萨崇高的理想人格，和对无上菩提的追求方面。原始佛教是以阿罗汉为修行的最... more 大乘菩萨道转变了原始佛教单纯追求个人解脱的狭隘价值观念，而代之以自利利他、普度有情的价值取向。大乘菩萨道的价值观念是反映在菩萨崇高的理想人格，和对无上菩提的追求方面。原始佛教是以阿罗汉为修行的最高果位，以“涅盘”为终极的目标，而大乘佛教却以“无住涅盘”为宗趣，以菩萨道作为实践利乐有情的价值主体。在考究大乘菩萨道思想的兴起时，不应该只是归咎于早期各部派，大、小乘之间的对峙而展开。因此，本章除了讲述大乘菩萨道的起源、信仰意义、特点、先决条件、菩萨行的标准，也探导了原始佛教经论里确实也蕴含了大乘菩萨道教义的信息资料，也揭示出北传大乘与印度原始佛教之间关于菩萨道立场的相同见解和一致的终极目标，尤其目的也在启迪不同传承的信仰者或初学者，能够从中理解而放弃偏狭的门户之见。南北本一家，皆源自释尊的教诫，无须为了历史各部派、各宗的意见分歧、承袭的误解与错解、或一知半解，自已更是执着已见与盲从，继续成为“凶险迷途中的羔羊”，终无法见性。
佛法是饶益众生，以根绝烦恼为究竟，是一种宗教性兼人生哲学的高明心理学疗法，是治疗心病的药方。所以佛法僧三宝就一直被比喻为医王、医方、医师，透过佛法来治疗现代人的身心疾病、人生意义乃至生死问题。此... more 佛法是饶益众生，以根绝烦恼为究竟，是一种宗教性兼人生哲学的高明心理学疗法，是治疗心病的药方。所以佛法僧三宝就一直被比喻为医王、医方、医师，透过佛法来治疗现代人的身心疾病、人生意义乃至生死问题。此文章正是要籍此让能更加了解南传佛法心理学范畴内的有关心理活动的逻辑法则，尤其在历缘对境、起心动念、或面对困境、恼怒考验的情况，能懂得如何对应处理，历境炼心，作为身心修养的借鉴，甚至可助人开解精神上的自缚桎梏，辅助启发智慧和解脱我执、我见诸烦恼障。本文主要是依据佛陀所教导的主要原始佛教要义，包括四蕴、四念住、八十九心、五十二心所法等，作为主要的探讨内容，并以南传上座部为主，意趋于探索佛教心理学的实践层面。然而，单这一些要义，尤其心法、心所法，其理义深奥，非从详述，则难以会达，但以此章篇幅有碍，只得作为浅述，然法义注释足可引为另行深入考究。
The vast store of the Pāli Commentaries not only had largely been ignored in the research underta... more The vast store of the Pāli Commentaries not only had largely been ignored in the research undertakings due to their lack of translation into the popular modern languages, but mainly also because of the difficult task of the Commentarial translation itself. However, the importance of Pali Commentarial literature can not be under-estimated. Different scholars have defined the scope of aṭṭhakathā on different basis with varied interpretations. To the extent that the origins of the aṭṭhakathā may well be traced to the time of the Buddha himself, it is still, however, dependent on whether the terms or words in question can be authenticated in consistence with those expositions in the main canonical texts. Although we have seen some literary facts and archaeological findings from past scholarships that have may have indicated evidentially to us the original sources and starting period of the Pāli Commentaries, the important question as to confirming exactly which canonical texts and Commentaries were available particularly at the time of the Third Buddhist Synod in Pāṭaliputta in the 3rd century B.C., regrettably, remains today as unassuredly as we were before.
Sigmund Freud explains the Unconscious as a crucial and intermediate link to our Ego and the real... more Sigmund Freud explains the Unconscious as a crucial and intermediate link to our Ego and the reality Conscious of the external world. He draws on the threefold division of the psychic self—the Id (Latin for “it”), the Ego, and Superego—base on which I associate them with the Unconscious, Preconscious, and Conscious respectively. Among the three, the Unconscious is the most mysterious realm in the mind-brain relation. Thus this article will only examine the Unconscious in the context of dreams, by making critical comparison between the Freudian study of it and the Buddhist perspective particularly from the Theravada Tipiṭaka. The first part will dwell on explanation of the Unconscious relative to the Id and Ego forces, characteristics of the Id, examples of the embedded Unconscious, and the possible Buddhist renderings of the Unconscious. The later part will explore the behavioral traits and mechanism of the Unconscious in the process of dreams, to attempt an interpretation of dreams, and discuss to what extent dreams are affected by the id-forces of unconscious—from the Theravada Buddhist stand point and also from the descriptive level of quantum theory.
实际上有许多人在受了沙弥戒、比丘戒、菩萨戒之后，对行证菩萨道的真正涵义却还是很含糊，包括我在内。择写本章的原因，除了要探讨南、北传之间对菩萨道思想的不同见解、定义标准、引证、修证方法、条件、发展... more 实际上有许多人在受了沙弥戒、比丘戒、菩萨戒之后，对行证菩萨道的真正涵义却还是很含糊，包括我在内。择写本章的原因，除了要探讨南、北传之间对菩萨道思想的不同见解、定义标准、引证、修证方法、条件、发展演变、障碍等，也是希望藉此探析能更加了解一个健全菩萨道的修行所应该避免的失误或偏颇事项，从而能检讨自身的修行方法是否也有偏失和缺备，以及如何能加以纠正或补充。尤其在最后对“八尊法”的探究，是一直都在认为，在众弟子努力推广南传菩萨道思想、菩萨行神圣精神的当前，古印度的“八尊法”显然是已不适合于新时代现实生活的需要，更何况是要推广到各国不同的民族与文化里去。
Most non-Buddhists believe that the concept of kamma is far too abstract, mystical, illusive, or ... more Most non-Buddhists believe that the concept of kamma is far too abstract, mystical, illusive, or even delusive. With this in mind, this article aims at doing a service to humanity by providing an elementary ground work for further research on the study of kamma philosophy using scientific approach. I will introduce in the first chapter the definitions and concepts of kamma in the Buddha’s own words, follow by describing the important characteristics and the misconceptions of kamma. The second chapter will explain the important phenomena of the Quantum Mechanics that are supposedly useful in interpreting the process of Kamma. These phenomenal elements will also recur in the subsequent chapter. I will make bold attempt in chapter 3 to associate the understanding of the kamma process with some of the relevant quantum theories (descriptive) by the different physicists.
从表层的意义来看，禅教合一，是说禅宗和教门各派的融合和统一，但实际上这禅教一致是代表佛教内部的统一。遗憾的是，古今中外佛教界只有少数人去重视这种统一的问题，人们还在热衷于各自宗派之争论，禅教之间... more 从表层的意义来看，禅教合一，是说禅宗和教门各派的融合和统一，但实际上这禅教一致是代表佛教内部的统一。遗憾的是，古今中外佛教界只有少数人去重视这种统一的问题，人们还在热衷于各自宗派之争论，禅教之间，互不融通。今时处于末法时期，邪师邪见、附佛外道泛滥，基督、依斯兰教、各种新兴神教迅速林立扩展，排佛之声络绎不绝。反观佛教内部的分裂，从印度佛教割裂至二十个部派之多，及中国禅宗至宗密时代，分裂至大小百多家，再衰减到五家七派，加上教门之天台、华严、唯识、三论、净土、密宗、律宗，各家本身内部也分门别类，相持不下，继续分裂，看者痛惜，据于此局面，才对此一大事论题，集心作一探讨。首先，我从禅教于修行上的定义、认知、误解，和古德大师对禅教一致的崇尙事迹方面来分析说明。文中也讨论了近代禅宗对禅教融通的看法和演变作风，和禅教融合过程方面将面对的障碍。最后再概括了主张从诸了义经之至极了义、佛陀的一心、本旨精神方面，来对禅教一致的合理性、必要性，加于详细阐述。
This book contains four scriptures of the Buddha’s teachings and detailed explanations on transce... more This book contains four scriptures of the Buddha’s teachings and detailed explanations on transcendental knowledge and noble wisdom as requisite for the peerless perfect enlightenment. Contents of the Buddha’s instructions are primarily focused on ways of meditational practice and effective contemplation in the normal daily routines, for the purpose of realising instant awakening, and ultimately for consummation of the unsurpassed supreme enlightenment of Buddhahood.
Śūraṃgama-sūtra is a scripture that expounds the ultimate truths as well as is a meditation manua... more Śūraṃgama-sūtra is a scripture that expounds the ultimate truths as well as is a meditation manual of explicit details, which is indispensable for the true practice of every serious yogin. A good understanding of the Śūraṃgama-sūtra would help the meditation practitioners to gain thorough insight into the verities of life; to keep them from losing sight of the hidden nature of the wondrous true mind within the daily experiences of themselves; to make for quick advancement in their practices for purification of their minds; and to realise the noble knowledge and wisdom in the Path of unsurpassed perfect enlightenment.
Laṅkāvatāra-Sūtra, translated by bhikṣu Venerable Guṇabhadra, is one of classical sourcebooks of ... more Laṅkāvatāra-Sūtra, translated by bhikṣu Venerable Guṇabhadra, is one of classical sourcebooks of the Vijñānavāda school, is also the main thrust of spiritual cultivation of the Chan and Zen schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The text is a quintessence of the Buddha’s explication of the tainted and purified aspects of mind. The catechetical contents center on core Mahāyāna principles, are subsumed under four categories of subjects as the five dharmas, the three inherent natures, the eight forms of consciousness, and the two aspects of selflessness.
The Abhidharma-samuccaya is a systemic explication of the Abhidharma teaching of all core princip... more The Abhidharma-samuccaya is a systemic explication of the Abhidharma teaching of all core principles of Buddhism. It is one of the important sourcebooks of the Yogācāra and Vijñānavāda schools. The treatise contains two divisions with four sections in each, is a distillation of the larger contents of the same two divisions of the voluminous Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra. A large part of the contents illuminates also teachings common to the Śrāvakayāna and Pratyekabuddhayāna, just when it explains principles that apply to Bodhisattvas. The text analyses the three classes of phenomena, the thirty-seven requisite factors of enlightenment, full scope of the mental factors, insight meditation and so on, with many different ways to examine them, to efficaciously apply them to practice.
Mahāyānasaṃgrāha-śāstra, by patriarch Venerable Asaṅga, is an important Abhidharma treatise of th... more Mahāyānasaṃgrāha-śāstra, by patriarch Venerable Asaṅga, is an important Abhidharma treatise of the Yogācāra school of the Indian Mahāyāna tradition, as well as the Dharmalakṣaṇa denomination or Vijñānavāda of the Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism. The ten Chapters of the text encompass elucidation of all core principles of the Mahāyāna teachings, including ālayavijñāna, manasvijñāna, their relationship with the six sense-cognitions, the three inherent natures of realities, the nature of mere-conscious-constructions, meditational insight, practice of the ten pāramitā ways, the ten stages of Bodhisattvas’ cultivation, types of nirvāṇa, realisation and fruitions of the Buddha-hood.
Saṃdhinirmocana-Sūtra is a Buddhist scripture which explicates the profound and complete meanings... more Saṃdhinirmocana-Sūtra is a Buddhist scripture which explicates the profound and complete meanings hidden in all those other scriptures that are incomplete with covert connotations for the different reasons. This text is the classical sourcebook of the earliest system of thought of the Yogācāra school. It is also one of the several texts that form the bedrock of the thinking of the Buddhist Vijñānavāda school. This scripture, with the exception of its Introduction section, is also part of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra.
As the most voluminous and important text of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, the Paṭṭhāna applies the sche... more As the most voluminous and important text of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, the Paṭṭhāna applies the scheme of twenty-four conditional relations to deal with the manifold conditionality of all the mental and physical phenomena of existence. This book reveals in great details of the conditional relations of momentarily passing mental-material phenomenal realities at moment of rebirth-linking, in the continuity of life, and at moment of death. The principle of conditionality taught in the Paṭṭhāna applies to every aspect of our day-to-day lives, in all moments of our interactions with things and people around us. Dozens of charts are created in this book to facilitate better understanding of the different parts of the teaching.
Dhammasaṅgaṇi is the fundamental first book of the Pāli Abhidhamma Piṭaka. Its contents represent... more Dhammasaṅgaṇi is the fundamental first book of the Pāli Abhidhamma Piṭaka. Its contents represent quintessence of the entire Theravada Abhidhamma philosophy. This book elaborates in considerable detail in six chapters, covering important topics on couplets and triplets of the Abhidhammamātikā, and couplets of the Suttantamātikā in the first chapter; the 89 states of consciousness (cittāni) in the second chapter; 52 mental concomitants (cetasikā) and explain how each of these cetasikas correlates with the 89 states of consciousness in the third chapter; all aspects of corporeality/matters (rūpa) in the fourth chapter; detail as to how the terms in each cluster from the Abhidhammamātikā are to be applied are explained in the fifth chapter; enumerated expositions on the unconditioned element (Nibbāna) are given in the last chapter. Dhammasaṅgaṇi expounds all conceivable phenomenal existence with these four ultimate realities (paramatthā): states of consciousness, mental concomitants, corporeality, and Nibbāna. Many useful charts are included and explained in this book for assisting readers and students in enhancing their understanding.
This Abhidhamma book, Volume II of the Yamaka treatise examines the foundational principles of Bu... more This Abhidhamma book, Volume II of the Yamaka treatise examines the foundational principles of Buddhism, with emphasis on the focal issues of terms definitions, origination and cessation moments of thought, birth-moment and death-moment, and phenomenal characteristics of different individuals, are requisite material information for insight meditation and the development of wisdom. The analysis covers the topics of material and mental formations, latent states of proclivities, pure states of consciousness, dhammā, and the twenty-two controlling faculties. More concrete answers, and illustration with examples and charts are provided for every chapter, to make the study of this difficult book a delightful and rewarding experience. Four appendices of relevant information are also included as references to the contents and as useful supplements for readers.
The book of Yamaka examines and explains the phenomenal states of different individuals by using ... more The book of Yamaka examines and explains the phenomenal states of different individuals by using pairs of catechisms through direct and inverse formulation in dual groupings, and continue in three categories of measurement. Because of the massive textual contents, this book is compiled as Volume I by examining the first five of the ten chapters. Chapter 1 clarifies the fundamental differences in the Abhidhamma terminology such as roots, root-conditions, states, causes. The subsequent four chapters deal with the clarification of terms, the arising and cessation of specific phenomenal states, and gauging the aspect of comprehension in topics on aggregates, bases, elements, and truths. Many expositive examples, along with more concrete answers are provided in this analysis. Three appendices over and above a total of 92 charts and diagrams, are composed with clear-cut illustrations to assist readers in the studying of this book.
This book examines the states in question based on four principles: including, not-including, ass... more This book examines the states in question based on four principles: including, not-including, association, dissociation. There are 371 states of inquiry which consist of 105 internal states, are taken from the first 13 Chapters of the second book, Vibhaṅga; and 266 external states, are taken from Dhammasaṅgaṇī mātikā. These 371 states are first examined in Chapter 1 whereby states of inquiry from the subsequent thirteen chapters are later based on. These states are examined using fourteen methods, through the different combinations of states and different combinations of the four principles, for answers in terms of aggregates, bases, and elements. These fourteen methods end with 2453 states of inquiry which allow us to examine all conceivable mental phenomena with reference to the three schemata of aggregates, bases, and elements. I have included a chart and analytical answers, not whole numbers but in specifics, for every of these states of inquiry. I have also provided 35 charts by various other classifications in appendixes as references to the contents and as supplementary guide.
This book provides an effective guide to especially Buddhist practitioners for gauging their dail... more This book provides an effective guide to especially Buddhist practitioners for gauging their daily progress as to path cultivation. It begins with a table of contents (mātikā), enumerating conventional Abhidhamma groups of the 5 aggregates, 12 bases, 18 elements, Truth, 22 faculties, follows by the exposition of individual-types by units, twofold, threefold, up to descriptions under tenfold. Nearly all of its designations are identical parallels drawn from the ten Nipātas of the Aṅguttara Nikāya with only some minor variations and omissions. Other designations are also found, sometimes as fragmentary descriptions, sometimes with different meanings, in the various suttas of the Nikāyas. For the benefit of the readers, I have referenced these relevant suttas in the mātikā, and I have also given necessary exposition to these referenced suttas in the subsequent Chapters. This book analyses 390 types of individual, or more specifically, types of monks and nuns, although some of the designations do overlap. These are unequivocal norms of measurements drawn up as a yardstick for providing advice to the declining monastics as well as a good manual for advancing progress of the assiduous monastics.
This book covers the eighteen treatises of the original scripture. A total of 273 tables, 30 diag... more This book covers the eighteen treatises of the original scripture. A total of 273 tables, 30 diagrams, and lucidly-defined outlines of points and summaries are used extensively throughout this book to present the contents of the original text as lively as possible to readers. The treatises are divided into three distinct groups. The first group containing the Five Aggregates, Twelve Sense-Bases, Eighteen Elements, Four Noble Truths, Twenty-Two Controlling Faculties, and Dependent Origination, are the fundamental requisites for developing our right views and wisdom. The second group contains the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, Four Right Striving, Four Means to Accomplishment, Seven Factors of Enlightenment, Noble Eightfold Path, and Jhāna, provide the basis for practicing wisdom using the different approaches, all of which are interdependent modular functions connecting one to another. The third group contains the Illimitables, Precepts, Analytical Insight, kinds of Knowledge, numerical list of defilement, and kernel of the Buddha’s teaching — provide supplementary information illuminated in extensive details not apropos to being dealt with in the preceding twelve Chapters.
Introduction:
It is important at the outset here for us to have some brief understanding about... more Introduction:
It is important at the outset here for us to have some brief understanding about a few things noteworthy, that is, the historical background of the Pāli Abhidhamma genesis, the relevant significance and roles of the Abhidhamma literature in the Tripiīaka, how the Dhammasaṅgaṇi relates to the other books of the Pāli Abhidhamma corpus, and what substantial relationship the seven Pāli Abhidhamma books of the Theravada has to the seven books of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidhamma.
The seven books of the Pāli Abhidhamma were recited at the Third Council of Buddhism, held at Pāṭaliputta around 251 B.C., which was 200 years or so after the passing away of the Gotama Buddha. At that time the Pāli Abhidhamma Piṭaka was included. After that, Asoka's son, Mahinda, brought the Pāli Tripiīaka to Sri Lanka, along with the commentaries that were recited at the Third Council. Thus the authenticity and significance of Pāli Abhidhamma can be traced back to as early as the beginning of the 2nd century B.C.
While the Sutta and Vinaya Piṭakas lay out the practical aspects of the Buddhist path to awakening, the Pāli Abhidhamma Piṭaka expounds a system of philosophical psychology—a theoretical framework that supports the underpinnings of that very path. Literally, Abhidhamma means “concerning the Dhamma”. Often being regarded as a quasi-scientific cognitive model of our mind, Abhidhamma deals with astonishing detail about our psycho-physical phenomena of existences. It provides instructions according to states, and distinguish between the mind, its associated mental factors, and forms. Through study of Abhidhamma, we gain precise insight into how our mind functions and subsequently able to comprehend in a methodical way why we behaved in many circumstances as strangely and inexplicable as we sometimes are. The significance and benefits from mastering the Abhidhamma is further more all-important to Buddhist practitioners.
As a matter-of-factly, Abhidhamma nomenclatures, its extensive classifications and exhaustive analysis explain very much the reason for its prolixity and esotericism, and by no means can be comprehended with minimal effort. For example, in the Pāli text Dhammasaṅgaṇi, the question such as “Katame dhammā kusalā” or “which are the states that are good”, had been asked 146 times in the various categories, and likewise other questions are also repeated over and again many times. Altogether, the text contains a catechism of 1616 questions, and the similar mode of questions-and-answers had also been structured in the other Pāli Abhidhamma books which simply explains the reason why the study of Abhidhamma literature is always a lengthy and a wearisome effort. Even until today, not many researches have been done in Abhidhamma as compared to the Suttas, and generally Abhidhamma remains very much a closed book amongst the scholars and even to the Buddhists themselves. To those who have the interest to study the Dhammasaṅgaṇī, this essential manual with many tables and lucid illustrations will ease the humdrum and weariness of that learning process.
As part of the term Dhammasaṅgaṇī, dhamma means “ultimate realities” ("法"), and saṅgaṇī means “collecting together” ("集"). Hence the name given to its Chinese title: "法集論". The Dhammasaṅgaṇi begins with a Mātikā (matrix, "論母"), which is a list of classifications of dhamma, or “ultimate realities” , translated differently as phenomena, states, patterns, names, etc. Within the Mātikā, there are 22 Tika (triads or 3-fold classifications; "三法門''), followed by 100 Duka (dyads or the 2-fold classifications; ''二法門'') in accordance with the Abhidhamma method (''論之論母''), and also 42 Duka conforming to the Sutta method known as Suttantamātikā (''經之論母''). Altogether, the 122 Abhidhamma classifications (Abhidhammamātikā) are also applied unanimously in the Vibhaṅga, Dhātukathā, Yamaka and Paṭṭhāna of Abhidhamma treatises. The Dhammasaṅgaṇī enumerates all the phenomena (dhamma), namely our consciousness (citta), the associated mental concomitants (cetasika), and corporeality (rūpa). In the enumeration of phenomena, they are being arranged into various categories to bring out their exact nature, functions, and interdependence relationship between ourselves internally and with our surroundings as the external world.
Let’s examine the important roles that the Abhidhamma literature play in relation to the Suttanta Piṭaka. The Dhammasaṅgaṇī enumerates and defines a diverse categories of terms and phenomena which are written in the Suttanta Nikāyas but which differs in the methods of treatment. In the Suttanta Piṭaka, the query into the existence of phenomena of all living things and how an individual explains of its diverse functions, is through another five types of ultimate realities known as the Five Aggregates (pañcakhandhā), namely: matter, feeling, perception, mental formations (volition), and consciousness. These Five Aggregates have been classified and explained only partially in the Suttas, whereas in the Pāli Abhidhamma, the Five Aggregates are dissected and analyzed in considerable detail—by way of triads and dyads, consciousness, the co-adjunct mental concomitants, corporeal phenomena, and conditions.
The first three ultimate realities of the Abhidhamma (consciousness, mental factors, and matter) incorporate the Five Aggregates of the Suttanta. The Suttanta’s “aggregate of consciousness” (viññākkhandha) can be comprehended by the term “consciousness” (citta) taken from Abhidhamma, but importantly, the word citta is to be understood to denote different classes of consciousness distinguished by their corresponding concomitants. The Theravada’s Abhidhamma distinguishes citta into a variety of classes known as the 89 states of consciousness, and by a finer method of practising differentiation, becomes 121 states. The mental procedure of the 52 mental factors (cetasikas) conjoin with the 89 states of consciousness, working on the basis of interdependency. The Abhidhamma philosophy enumerates the 52 mental factors that arise together with our consciousness―in which the Suttanta’s aggregates of feeling and perception are taken in as two factors, whereas the aggregate of volition (saṅkhārakkhandha) ("行蕴") is sub-divided distinctly into fifty mental factors. However, a more significant distinction being that, the Five Aggregates are non-inclusive of the Abhidhamma fourth reality of Nibbāna, which in its own right, is an unconditioned reality―an ultimate state of deliverance from all sufferings.
Dhammasaṅgaṇi is the first of the seven books of the Pāli Abhidhamma Piṭaka. The seven books are arranged in its chronological order as listed below.
i. Dhammasaṅgaṇi (Enumeration of Phenomena)("法集論") ;
ii. Vibhaṅga (The Book of Treatises or “Analysis)("分別論") ;
iii. Dhātukathā (Discourse on Elements)( "界論") ;
iv. Puggalapaññati (Discourse on the Description of Individuals)("人施設論") ;
v. Kathāvattu (Discourse on Points of Controversy)("論事") ;
vi. Yamaka (The Book of Pairs)("雙論") ;
vii. Paṭṭhāna (The Book of Relations)("發趣論").
Let’s also have a brief understanding of the relevant importance and co-relationship among these seven treatises. The Dhammasaṅgaṇī enumerates all the dhamma in the Mātikā and categorically analyzes them in terms of mental phenomena and corporeal phenomena. The Vibhaṅga and Dhātukathā give a full analysis and detailed view of the selected categories of the Tika and Duka groups in the Mātikā. The Puggalapaññatti sets out the classifications of the different types of individuals, serves to take account of the conceptual realities excluded by the strict application of absolute terms by the Abhidhamma proper. The Kathāvatthu, a controversial treatise ascribed to the elder Moggaliputta Tissa who convened the Third Great Synod, is concerned mainly with refutation of the fallacious views of the schismatic schools outside the Theravadin fold. The Yamaka sets out to analyze the interrelationship of dhamma (from Dhammasaṅgaṇī, Vibhaṅga and Dhātukathā) and puggalas, resolving ambiguities and defining the precise usage of technical terms. The Paṭṭhāna, applies its scheme of twenty-four conditional relations together with all their conceivable permutations, to correlate all the phenomena of existence enumerated in the Abhidhamma Mātikā. Compared to the analytical approach of the earlier treatises of the Abhidhamma, the Paṭṭhāna is a synthetic method which attests that the dhammas or phenomena are not isolated and self-contained identities but are nodes in a well-coordinated system of inter-related and inter-dependent thought-moment events. It is the most voluminous and most thorough of the seven books, comprising 2640 pages in the Burmese-script of the Sixth Buddhist Council edition. The Dhammasaṅgiṇī which is the summarized epitome of all the Abhidhamma literature, and the Paṭṭhāna being designated the “Great Treatise” (Mahāpakaraṇa) and for which is compared as the profound testimony to the omniscience of the Buddha—together are the two most important of the seven treatises which lay out the quintessence of the entire Theravada Abhidhamma philosophy .......
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Different scholars have defined the scope of aṭṭhakathā on different basis with varied interpretations. To the extent that the origins of the aṭṭhakathā may well be traced to the time of the Buddha himself, it is still, however, dependent on whether the terms or words in question can be authenticated in consistence with those expositions in the main canonical texts.
Although we have seen some literary facts and archaeological findings from past scholarships that have may have indicated evidentially to us the original sources and starting period of the Pāli Commentaries, the important question as to confirming exactly which canonical texts and Commentaries were available particularly at the time of the Third Buddhist Synod in Pāṭaliputta in the 3rd century B.C., regrettably, remains today as unassuredly as we were before.
Books by PB Tan
Different scholars have defined the scope of aṭṭhakathā on different basis with varied interpretations. To the extent that the origins of the aṭṭhakathā may well be traced to the time of the Buddha himself, it is still, however, dependent on whether the terms or words in question can be authenticated in consistence with those expositions in the main canonical texts.
Although we have seen some literary facts and archaeological findings from past scholarships that have may have indicated evidentially to us the original sources and starting period of the Pāli Commentaries, the important question as to confirming exactly which canonical texts and Commentaries were available particularly at the time of the Third Buddhist Synod in Pāṭaliputta in the 3rd century B.C., regrettably, remains today as unassuredly as we were before.
It is important at the outset here for us to have some brief understanding about a few things noteworthy, that is, the historical background of the Pāli Abhidhamma genesis, the relevant significance and roles of the Abhidhamma literature in the Tripiīaka, how the Dhammasaṅgaṇi relates to the other books of the Pāli Abhidhamma corpus, and what substantial relationship the seven Pāli Abhidhamma books of the Theravada has to the seven books of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidhamma.
The seven books of the Pāli Abhidhamma were recited at the Third Council of Buddhism, held at Pāṭaliputta around 251 B.C., which was 200 years or so after the passing away of the Gotama Buddha. At that time the Pāli Abhidhamma Piṭaka was included. After that, Asoka's son, Mahinda, brought the Pāli Tripiīaka to Sri Lanka, along with the commentaries that were recited at the Third Council. Thus the authenticity and significance of Pāli Abhidhamma can be traced back to as early as the beginning of the 2nd century B.C.
While the Sutta and Vinaya Piṭakas lay out the practical aspects of the Buddhist path to awakening, the Pāli Abhidhamma Piṭaka expounds a system of philosophical psychology—a theoretical framework that supports the underpinnings of that very path. Literally, Abhidhamma means “concerning the Dhamma”. Often being regarded as a quasi-scientific cognitive model of our mind, Abhidhamma deals with astonishing detail about our psycho-physical phenomena of existences. It provides instructions according to states, and distinguish between the mind, its associated mental factors, and forms. Through study of Abhidhamma, we gain precise insight into how our mind functions and subsequently able to comprehend in a methodical way why we behaved in many circumstances as strangely and inexplicable as we sometimes are. The significance and benefits from mastering the Abhidhamma is further more all-important to Buddhist practitioners.
As a matter-of-factly, Abhidhamma nomenclatures, its extensive classifications and exhaustive analysis explain very much the reason for its prolixity and esotericism, and by no means can be comprehended with minimal effort. For example, in the Pāli text Dhammasaṅgaṇi, the question such as “Katame dhammā kusalā” or “which are the states that are good”, had been asked 146 times in the various categories, and likewise other questions are also repeated over and again many times. Altogether, the text contains a catechism of 1616 questions, and the similar mode of questions-and-answers had also been structured in the other Pāli Abhidhamma books which simply explains the reason why the study of Abhidhamma literature is always a lengthy and a wearisome effort. Even until today, not many researches have been done in Abhidhamma as compared to the Suttas, and generally Abhidhamma remains very much a closed book amongst the scholars and even to the Buddhists themselves. To those who have the interest to study the Dhammasaṅgaṇī, this essential manual with many tables and lucid illustrations will ease the humdrum and weariness of that learning process.
As part of the term Dhammasaṅgaṇī, dhamma means “ultimate realities” ("法"), and saṅgaṇī means “collecting together” ("集"). Hence the name given to its Chinese title: "法集論". The Dhammasaṅgaṇi begins with a Mātikā (matrix, "論母"), which is a list of classifications of dhamma, or “ultimate realities” , translated differently as phenomena, states, patterns, names, etc. Within the Mātikā, there are 22 Tika (triads or 3-fold classifications; "三法門''), followed by 100 Duka (dyads or the 2-fold classifications; ''二法門'') in accordance with the Abhidhamma method (''論之論母''), and also 42 Duka conforming to the Sutta method known as Suttantamātikā (''經之論母''). Altogether, the 122 Abhidhamma classifications (Abhidhammamātikā) are also applied unanimously in the Vibhaṅga, Dhātukathā, Yamaka and Paṭṭhāna of Abhidhamma treatises. The Dhammasaṅgaṇī enumerates all the phenomena (dhamma), namely our consciousness (citta), the associated mental concomitants (cetasika), and corporeality (rūpa). In the enumeration of phenomena, they are being arranged into various categories to bring out their exact nature, functions, and interdependence relationship between ourselves internally and with our surroundings as the external world.
Let’s examine the important roles that the Abhidhamma literature play in relation to the Suttanta Piṭaka. The Dhammasaṅgaṇī enumerates and defines a diverse categories of terms and phenomena which are written in the Suttanta Nikāyas but which differs in the methods of treatment. In the Suttanta Piṭaka, the query into the existence of phenomena of all living things and how an individual explains of its diverse functions, is through another five types of ultimate realities known as the Five Aggregates (pañcakhandhā), namely: matter, feeling, perception, mental formations (volition), and consciousness. These Five Aggregates have been classified and explained only partially in the Suttas, whereas in the Pāli Abhidhamma, the Five Aggregates are dissected and analyzed in considerable detail—by way of triads and dyads, consciousness, the co-adjunct mental concomitants, corporeal phenomena, and conditions.
The first three ultimate realities of the Abhidhamma (consciousness, mental factors, and matter) incorporate the Five Aggregates of the Suttanta. The Suttanta’s “aggregate of consciousness” (viññākkhandha) can be comprehended by the term “consciousness” (citta) taken from Abhidhamma, but importantly, the word citta is to be understood to denote different classes of consciousness distinguished by their corresponding concomitants. The Theravada’s Abhidhamma distinguishes citta into a variety of classes known as the 89 states of consciousness, and by a finer method of practising differentiation, becomes 121 states. The mental procedure of the 52 mental factors (cetasikas) conjoin with the 89 states of consciousness, working on the basis of interdependency. The Abhidhamma philosophy enumerates the 52 mental factors that arise together with our consciousness―in which the Suttanta’s aggregates of feeling and perception are taken in as two factors, whereas the aggregate of volition (saṅkhārakkhandha) ("行蕴") is sub-divided distinctly into fifty mental factors. However, a more significant distinction being that, the Five Aggregates are non-inclusive of the Abhidhamma fourth reality of Nibbāna, which in its own right, is an unconditioned reality―an ultimate state of deliverance from all sufferings.
Dhammasaṅgaṇi is the first of the seven books of the Pāli Abhidhamma Piṭaka. The seven books are arranged in its chronological order as listed below.
i. Dhammasaṅgaṇi (Enumeration of Phenomena)("法集論") ;
ii. Vibhaṅga (The Book of Treatises or “Analysis)("分別論") ;
iii. Dhātukathā (Discourse on Elements)( "界論") ;
iv. Puggalapaññati (Discourse on the Description of Individuals)("人施設論") ;
v. Kathāvattu (Discourse on Points of Controversy)("論事") ;
vi. Yamaka (The Book of Pairs)("雙論") ;
vii. Paṭṭhāna (The Book of Relations)("發趣論").
Let’s also have a brief understanding of the relevant importance and co-relationship among these seven treatises. The Dhammasaṅgaṇī enumerates all the dhamma in the Mātikā and categorically analyzes them in terms of mental phenomena and corporeal phenomena. The Vibhaṅga and Dhātukathā give a full analysis and detailed view of the selected categories of the Tika and Duka groups in the Mātikā. The Puggalapaññatti sets out the classifications of the different types of individuals, serves to take account of the conceptual realities excluded by the strict application of absolute terms by the Abhidhamma proper. The Kathāvatthu, a controversial treatise ascribed to the elder Moggaliputta Tissa who convened the Third Great Synod, is concerned mainly with refutation of the fallacious views of the schismatic schools outside the Theravadin fold. The Yamaka sets out to analyze the interrelationship of dhamma (from Dhammasaṅgaṇī, Vibhaṅga and Dhātukathā) and puggalas, resolving ambiguities and defining the precise usage of technical terms. The Paṭṭhāna, applies its scheme of twenty-four conditional relations together with all their conceivable permutations, to correlate all the phenomena of existence enumerated in the Abhidhamma Mātikā. Compared to the analytical approach of the earlier treatises of the Abhidhamma, the Paṭṭhāna is a synthetic method which attests that the dhammas or phenomena are not isolated and self-contained identities but are nodes in a well-coordinated system of inter-related and inter-dependent thought-moment events. It is the most voluminous and most thorough of the seven books, comprising 2640 pages in the Burmese-script of the Sixth Buddhist Council edition. The Dhammasaṅgiṇī which is the summarized epitome of all the Abhidhamma literature, and the Paṭṭhāna being designated the “Great Treatise” (Mahāpakaraṇa) and for which is compared as the profound testimony to the omniscience of the Buddha—together are the two most important of the seven treatises which lay out the quintessence of the entire Theravada Abhidhamma philosophy .......