Do sustainability certifications contribute to social justice and environmental protection? Selli... more Do sustainability certifications contribute to social justice and environmental protection? Selling Sustainability Short is a groundbreaking work that draws on extant research to introduce a comprehensive, novel theoretical framework for answering this question. It also offers a compelling response, based on original, rigorous multi-method research in the coffee sector. Grabs argues that the effectiveness of “fair trade” and “eco labels” depends on their ability to offer financial incentives for radical shifts toward deep ecology and social justice. Unfortunately, certifications rarely succeed in internalizing the true costs of production in this way. Certifications could become more effective, Grabs argues, if multiple stakeholder groups implemented expensive and extensive reforms. But such deep transformation may be unrealistic and inefficient. Selling Sustainability Short is required reading for students, scholars, CEOs, and certification organizations alike.
thical consumerism theory aims to describe, explain, and evaluate the ways in which producers and... more thical consumerism theory aims to describe, explain, and evaluate the ways in which producers and con- sumers use the market to support social and environmental values. The literature draws insights from empirical studies of sectors that largely take place on the legal market, such as textiles and agri-food. This paper takes a first step toward theorizing ethical consumerism in semi-legal sectors where market activities occur legally and illegally. How does extant theory extend to sectors such as sex work, cigarettes, and recreational drugs? This study draws on the case of recrea- tional cannabis (marijuana) in Portland, OR (USA). Data from 33 interviews, structured fieldwork at 64 dispensaries, and the US Census Bureau American Community Survey are analyzed using qualitative, quantitative, and spatial methods. The findings are compared to 12 suggestions that emerge from the literature on fair trade, organics, alterna- tive agriculture, and political consumerism. I argue that not all ethical consumerism theory extends to semi-legal sec- tors. Cannabis closely resembles theoretical expectations in terms of supply/demand, prioritization of ethical issues, and pervasiveness of false claims, but differs in terms of who organizes, which types of strategies are pursued, and how ethical products are framed. The differences stem from several pervasive stigmas about cannabis. I also argue that the stigmas that set cannabis apart from other (more legal sectors) and present challenges to ethical consumerism in cannabis are directly related to the War on Drugs. These insights suggest that prohibition (and its lingering effects) can inhibit the emergence of ethical consumerism.
25 Magazine (A publication of the Specialty Coffee Association), 2021
Researchers JANINA GRABS and ELIZABETH A. BENNETT explore profit sharing with suppliers as an inn... more Researchers JANINA GRABS and ELIZABETH A. BENNETT explore profit sharing with suppliers as an innovative way to secure a more just and stable future for coffee growers and, thus, the entire supply chain.
The Global Justice and Human Rights Journal Review , 2021
Voluntary sustainability certifications aim to achieve human rights objectives and sustainable de... more Voluntary sustainability certifications aim to achieve human rights objectives and sustainable development goals by creating rigorous standards, enforcing them, and labeling the resulting products as "ethical." Tens of thousands of workers depend on certifications for decent wages, equitable opportunities, and safe working conditions. If certifications do not achieve these goals and reforming them is resource intensive and highly improbable, what is the point?
A commentary on J. Grabs (2020) Selling Sustainability Short? The Private Governance of Labor and the Environment in the Coffee Sector, Cambridge University Press.
Far too often, global supply chains distribute value in ways that contribute to income inequality... more Far too often, global supply chains distribute value in ways that contribute to income inequality and the uneven accumulation of wealth. Despite a surge of innovations to address this problem— such as fair trade, corporate social responsibility, and creating shared value—the issue of value distribution persists as a pressing priority for the international development and business communities. This article puts forth a first attempt at theorizing profit sharing as a potential mechanism for more equitable value distribution in global value chains. Drawing on two in-depth, multi-method case studies of companies that share profits in the coffee sector, we develop eight theoretical propositions about the applicability and efficacy of profit sharing as a tool for redistribution. Our research suggests that profit sharing can distribute value without requiring suppliers to compromise price stability, profit maximization, value creation, or alternative economic opportunities. This conclusion challenges extant theory which asserts (based on studies of fair trade certification, direct trade, and solidarity trade) that these tradeoffs are typically necessary or inevitable. We also extend the literature on profit sharing. Extant literature examines firm-level attempts to maximize productivity and minimize dissent. We contribute by theorizing profit sharing’s fitness for redistributive objectives in the context of value chains. The implication of our findings is that, in some contexts, companies may be able to increase prices and improve income stability without requiring suppliers to compromise other economic priorities.
Cambridge Handbook of Environmental Sociology, 2020
This chapter aims to provide a snapshot of the current fair trade movement by addressing four pro... more This chapter aims to provide a snapshot of the current fair trade movement by addressing four provocative questions: 1) Fair trade for whom? 2) Fair trade by whom? 3) How may fair trade labeling and certification support these goals (or not)? and 4) What next for fair trade’s approach to capitalism and the state? For new readers, the chapter provides an introduction to fair trade that focuses primarily on the current moment. For readers more familiar with fair trade, it offers an updated summary of key debates in the field, drawing heavily on literature published in the last five years. This chapter also highlights linkages between fair trade and the environment. It describes the ways in which fair trade can support environmental conservation, raises questions about climate justice, and shows how certification programs can pit people against the planet, rather than supporting both. The following section provides basic background information on the fair trade movement.
Environmental movement organizations (EMOs) contribute to and benefit from political consumerism ... more Environmental movement organizations (EMOs) contribute to and benefit from political consumerism initiatives, such as voluntary sustainability certifi- cations (VSCs). Surprisingly, EMOs have avoided America’s fastest growing agricultural sector: newly legalized cannabis (marijuana). Drawing on qualita- tive mixed methods – interviews with cannabis supply chain actors and legalization advocates, industry event participation, desk-based research, and dispensary visits – I analyze the nine voluntary sustainability certifications that have emerged to facilitate political consumerism in the US cannabis market to identify the conditions under which EMOs eschew political consumerism, and the consequences thereof. EMOs may avoid ethical consumerism initiatives in countercultural sectors because endorsing stigmatized products/lifestyles or challenging existing ethical frames may create reputational risk. Without the expertise, accountability, and resources EMOs typically provide, VSCs may stagnate or ignore best practices of standards-setting, auditing, and govern- ance. Stigmatized sectors may be highly susceptible to industry capture, compromising the potential of political consumerism as a vehicle for environ- mental change.
Cannabis (marijuana) is the most commonly consumed, universally produced, and frequently traffick... more Cannabis (marijuana) is the most commonly consumed, universally produced, and frequently trafficked psychoactive substance prohibited under international drug control laws. Yet, several countries have recently moved toward legalization. In these places, the legal status of cannabis is complex, especially because illegal markets persist. This chapter explores the ways in which a sector’s legal status interacts with political consumerism. The analysis draws on a case study of political consumerism in the US and Canadian cannabis markets over the past two decades, as both countries moved toward legalization. It finds that the goals, tactics, and leadership of political consumerism activities changed as the sector’s legal status shifted. It suggests that prohibition, semi-legalization, and new legality may present special challenges to political consumerism, such as silencing producers, confusing consumers, deterring social movement organizations, and discouraging discourse about ethical issues. The chapter concludes that political consumerism and legal status may have deep import for one another.
Ethical consumerism theory aims to describe, explain, and evaluate the ways in which producers an... more Ethical consumerism theory aims to describe, explain, and evaluate the ways in which producers and consumers use the market to support social and environmental values. The literature draws insights from empirical studies of sectors that largely take place on the legal market, such as textiles and agri-food. This paper takes a first step toward theorizing ethical consumerism in semi-legal sectors where market activities occur legally and illegally. How does extant theory extend to sectors such as sex work, cigarettes, and recreational drugs? This study draws on the case of recreational cannabis (marijuana) in Portland, Oregon (USA). Data from 33 interviews, structured fieldwork at 64 dispensaries, and the US Census Bureau American Community Survey are analyzed using qualitative, quantitative, and spatial methods. The findings are compared to twelve suggestions that emerge from the literature on fair trade, organics, alternative agriculture, and political consumerism. I argue that not all ethical consumerism theory extends to semi-legal sectors. Cannabis closely resembles theoretical expectations in terms of supply/demand, prioritization of ethical issues, and pervasiveness of false claims, but differs in terms of who organizes, which types of strategies are pursued, and how ethical products are framed. The differences stem from several pervasive stigmas about cannabis. I also argue that the stigmas that set cannabis apart from other (more legal sectors) and present challenges to ethical consumerism in cannabis are directly related to the War on Drugs. These insights suggest that prohibition (and its lingering effects) can inhibit the emergence of ethical consumerism.
The sustainable development agenda has long been linked with social justice, income equality, and... more The sustainable development agenda has long been linked with social justice, income equality, and workers' rights. This article argues that voluntary sustainability standards-setting organizations (VSSSOs) can contribute to these goals by requiring employers to pay living wages and actively support collective bargaining. Examining the content of 25 voluntary sustainability standards (VSS) set by 16 systematically selected VSSSOs, this study finds that only 32% of VSS mandate a living wage, and only 16% rigorously support collective bargaining. It argues that supporting national minimum wages is helpful but not sufficient, examines sources of downward pressure on VSS, identifies potential explanations for variation among standards, and briefly describes a new initiative promoting living wage standards. While VSS are not a silver bullet for sustainable development or wage equity, VSSSOs are overlooking a significant opportunity to be a transformative part of a broader solution.
Researchers debate whether today’s Fairtrade mark honors or bastardizes the intentions of Fairtra... more Researchers debate whether today’s Fairtrade mark honors or bastardizes the intentions of Fairtrade pioneers. Their arguments are often based on assertions about Fairtrade governance, the complex system of processes and practices used to make high- level decisions about certifying Fairtrade. However, extant literature on how Fairtrade’s organizational structure and institutional norms have evolved lacks methodological rigor, explanatory accounts, and comprehensive detail. This chapter provides a historical narrative that improves upon these shortcomings. This research is based on data from four sources: literature from Fairtrade labeling organizations; academic publications; personal memoirs of key actors; and over 100 original interviews with a diverse spectrum of key actors. The interviewees provided feedback on the narrative, helping to vet this chapter as the first rigorous historical account of Fairtrade governance.
Today, Americans are simultaneously skeptical of and engaged with political life. How does widesp... more Today, Americans are simultaneously skeptical of and engaged with political life. How does widespread cynicism affect the culture of civic participation? What are the implications for democracy? This study synthesizes data from a one-year collective ethnography of seven civic groups and theoretical work on boundary making, ambiguity, and role distancing. The authors find skepticism generates “disavowal of the political,” a cultural idiom that allows people to creatively constitute what they imagine to be appropriate forms of engagement. Disavowal generates taboos, and the authors show how disdain for conflict and special interests challenges activism around inequality. Political disavowal both facilitates and constrains civic engagement in an era of political skepticism.
This article is organized as follows. The background section describes the case of newly legalize... more This article is organized as follows. The background section describes the case of newly legalized recreational marijuana. It introduces Portland, Oregon as a hub of ethical consumerism and environmental mobilization; outlines the status of recreational marijuana in Oregon and in the United States; highlights environmental issues related to the cannabis production; and describes an uptick in ethical consumerism of other recreational drugs in the United States. Next, the theoretical framework organizes extant research on political consumerism and suggests how this study may contribute to knowledge on emerging industries, the role of stigmas in framing, and power dynamics at the retail level of analysis. Following, the methodology section describes the three methods used in this study: qualitative analysis of internet research, networking, and semistructured interviews; quantitative analysis of data collected at a random sample of 64 dispensaries; and spatial and statistical analysis relating the dispensary findings to sociodemographic indicators. The findings section offers what the author believes to be the first account of ethical consumerism in the licit recreational marijuana sector. It demonstrates that there is, indeed, a nascent “political consumerism movement” in the licit, recreational marijuana sector. The movement is largely industrydriven and is marked by an absence of third sector actors (such as environmental NGOs, fair trade certification organizations, and agricultural justice advocates). Mobilization efforts are challenged by two distinct stigmas: cannabis cultivation as a “natural” (and thus necessarily environmentallyfriendly) process, and the marijuana industry as a “criminal” enterprise (which may deter potential allies). Interestingly, the distribution of “ethical” pot is quite consistent across neighborhoods of different socioeconomic compositionsin contrast to most ethicallyoriented products. The paper closes with a discussion of these findings, their implications, and suggestions for further research.
For decades, workers have flocked to Northern California and Southern Oregon to help with the fal... more For decades, workers have flocked to Northern California and Southern Oregon to help with the fall cannabis harvest. Some are migrants who include the crop on their seasonal tour. Others are driven by an interest in cannabis culture, or by the promise of lucrative pay for low-skilled work.1 While some cannabis workers (or “trimmers”) have had pleasant, safe and profitable experiences, many, as described above, have not.
‘Fair trade’ has emerged over recent decades as a buzzword used by social scientists, socially co... more ‘Fair trade’ has emerged over recent decades as a buzzword used by social scientists, socially conscious businesses, international development practitioners, social movement activists and ethically minded consumers. As a concept, fair trade refers to a critique of the historical inequalities inherent in international trade and to a belief that trade can be made more socially just. This notion is increasingly linked to a set of concrete initiatives that challenge global inequalities and create more egalitarian commodity networks, linking marginalized producers in the global South with progressive consumers in the global North. In moving from abstract concept to grounded practice, fair trade works to transform international trade from a vehicle of exploitation to an avenue of empowerment. In the global South, fair trade seeks to enhance wellbeing – by fostering higher prices and wages, stable markets and employment, better work conditions and environmental sustainability – and to bolster individual and collective capacities – by strengthening information exchanges, social service access, opportunities for self-determination and local organizations. In the global North, fair trade seeks to bolster more equitable trade policies, business models and consumption practices by making available a range of goods that are produced under more socially just and environmentally sustainable conditions...
The trend of civic innovation in contemporary activism relies much on modern tools of communicati... more The trend of civic innovation in contemporary activism relies much on modern tools of communication as a quasi-corporate way to confront contemporary social issues. But, the authors explain, activism that is agnostic about outcomes reifies privilege, discourages dissent and raw emotion, and falls short of addressing the most pressing issues of our time. Civic engagement today is different than in the past. Many contemporary activists eschew sit-ins, picket lines, and paper petitions, stalwart organizing techniques of 1960s civil rights activists. Instead, today's civic innovators push us to " like " neighborhood associations on Facebook, tweet at elected officials during city council meetings, send feedback to government agencies via new mobile apps, and donate funds through online crowdsourcing platforms. Unlike their counter-culture predecessors, they don't shun private-sector ideas but instead borrow concepts and language from the business world. Civic innovators self-identify as entrepreneurial, innovative, and efficient. Civic innovation is bolstered by NGOs, universities, and the state. NGOs increasingly hire digital media gurus and do their development and campaign work online; a growing number of universities offer programs in social entrepreneurship; and local governments have developed online portals for citizen feedback (think digital-era suggestions boxes). According to civic innovators, new ideas and technologies encourage people who would otherwise turn away from politics to participate in local governance. But what do these new forms of civic engagement mean for democratic life? What are the potentials and the pitfalls of civic innovation?
Voluntary Sustainability Standards-Setting Organizations (VSSSOs) create standards to improve the... more Voluntary Sustainability Standards-Setting Organizations (VSSSOs) create standards to improve the social and/or envi- ronmental impacts of globalized production networks. VSSSOs are often assumed to have multi-stakeholder governance structures that include the producers of certified products (e.g., farmers, artisans, and workers). This article argues that including producers in gover- nance is desirable. However, analysis of 33 VSSSOs’ constitutions shows two-thirds do not even imply intention to include producers. At most, 25% ensure producers have votes/seats and 18% give producers veto power. The discussion examines what is lost when VSSSOs do not bring traditionally marginalized voices to global economic governance.
The fair trade movement aims to alleviate poverty and empower producers. This means working along... more The fair trade movement aims to alleviate poverty and empower producers. This means working alongside farmers and workers as a team. This guest blog from Lewis & Clark College professor and fair trade researcher Elizabeth Bennett discusses why it’s important to include producers, and what you can do to advocate for this best practice.
Voluntary standards-setting organizations are not neutral entities. They are political constructi... more Voluntary standards-setting organizations are not neutral entities. They are political constructions in which actors’ interests play out and power dynamics shape outcomes. The standards they create are likewise not simple derivatives of scientific evidence or aggregates of professional expertise but instead the products of political negotiation. In private regulatory bodies, as in all political arenas, the good and the awful manage to coexist, and the outcomes are just as subject to manipulation by powerful actors as in any other realm of global politics.
The chapter proceeds as follows. First a background section positions this analysis in relation to relevant fair trade studies. Next the data and methods section describes the collection and synthesis of over 17000 archival documents and more than 100 interviews with Fairtrade leaders and participants. Then an empirical section describes producers’ partici- pation in Fairtrade International governance from 1988 to 2014. It is presented in five time periods: label creation (1988–1995); label prolifer- ation (1992–1997); label unification and development (1997–2005); producers as members (2005–2011); and producers as equal owners (2011–2014).3 The discussion argues that the new structure could be pivotal in shifting Fairtrade outcomes, and it identifies key variables that shape the policy-making process. Some of the policy-making challenges were generated by Fairtrade International’s extended period of excluding producers, while others are broadly experienced, enduring problems in governance. The chapter closes with suggestions for future research and by emphasizing the value of including marginalized voices in private regulatory regimes.
Do sustainability certifications contribute to social justice and environmental protection? Selli... more Do sustainability certifications contribute to social justice and environmental protection? Selling Sustainability Short is a groundbreaking work that draws on extant research to introduce a comprehensive, novel theoretical framework for answering this question. It also offers a compelling response, based on original, rigorous multi-method research in the coffee sector. Grabs argues that the effectiveness of “fair trade” and “eco labels” depends on their ability to offer financial incentives for radical shifts toward deep ecology and social justice. Unfortunately, certifications rarely succeed in internalizing the true costs of production in this way. Certifications could become more effective, Grabs argues, if multiple stakeholder groups implemented expensive and extensive reforms. But such deep transformation may be unrealistic and inefficient. Selling Sustainability Short is required reading for students, scholars, CEOs, and certification organizations alike.
thical consumerism theory aims to describe, explain, and evaluate the ways in which producers and... more thical consumerism theory aims to describe, explain, and evaluate the ways in which producers and con- sumers use the market to support social and environmental values. The literature draws insights from empirical studies of sectors that largely take place on the legal market, such as textiles and agri-food. This paper takes a first step toward theorizing ethical consumerism in semi-legal sectors where market activities occur legally and illegally. How does extant theory extend to sectors such as sex work, cigarettes, and recreational drugs? This study draws on the case of recrea- tional cannabis (marijuana) in Portland, OR (USA). Data from 33 interviews, structured fieldwork at 64 dispensaries, and the US Census Bureau American Community Survey are analyzed using qualitative, quantitative, and spatial methods. The findings are compared to 12 suggestions that emerge from the literature on fair trade, organics, alterna- tive agriculture, and political consumerism. I argue that not all ethical consumerism theory extends to semi-legal sec- tors. Cannabis closely resembles theoretical expectations in terms of supply/demand, prioritization of ethical issues, and pervasiveness of false claims, but differs in terms of who organizes, which types of strategies are pursued, and how ethical products are framed. The differences stem from several pervasive stigmas about cannabis. I also argue that the stigmas that set cannabis apart from other (more legal sectors) and present challenges to ethical consumerism in cannabis are directly related to the War on Drugs. These insights suggest that prohibition (and its lingering effects) can inhibit the emergence of ethical consumerism.
25 Magazine (A publication of the Specialty Coffee Association), 2021
Researchers JANINA GRABS and ELIZABETH A. BENNETT explore profit sharing with suppliers as an inn... more Researchers JANINA GRABS and ELIZABETH A. BENNETT explore profit sharing with suppliers as an innovative way to secure a more just and stable future for coffee growers and, thus, the entire supply chain.
The Global Justice and Human Rights Journal Review , 2021
Voluntary sustainability certifications aim to achieve human rights objectives and sustainable de... more Voluntary sustainability certifications aim to achieve human rights objectives and sustainable development goals by creating rigorous standards, enforcing them, and labeling the resulting products as "ethical." Tens of thousands of workers depend on certifications for decent wages, equitable opportunities, and safe working conditions. If certifications do not achieve these goals and reforming them is resource intensive and highly improbable, what is the point?
A commentary on J. Grabs (2020) Selling Sustainability Short? The Private Governance of Labor and the Environment in the Coffee Sector, Cambridge University Press.
Far too often, global supply chains distribute value in ways that contribute to income inequality... more Far too often, global supply chains distribute value in ways that contribute to income inequality and the uneven accumulation of wealth. Despite a surge of innovations to address this problem— such as fair trade, corporate social responsibility, and creating shared value—the issue of value distribution persists as a pressing priority for the international development and business communities. This article puts forth a first attempt at theorizing profit sharing as a potential mechanism for more equitable value distribution in global value chains. Drawing on two in-depth, multi-method case studies of companies that share profits in the coffee sector, we develop eight theoretical propositions about the applicability and efficacy of profit sharing as a tool for redistribution. Our research suggests that profit sharing can distribute value without requiring suppliers to compromise price stability, profit maximization, value creation, or alternative economic opportunities. This conclusion challenges extant theory which asserts (based on studies of fair trade certification, direct trade, and solidarity trade) that these tradeoffs are typically necessary or inevitable. We also extend the literature on profit sharing. Extant literature examines firm-level attempts to maximize productivity and minimize dissent. We contribute by theorizing profit sharing’s fitness for redistributive objectives in the context of value chains. The implication of our findings is that, in some contexts, companies may be able to increase prices and improve income stability without requiring suppliers to compromise other economic priorities.
Cambridge Handbook of Environmental Sociology, 2020
This chapter aims to provide a snapshot of the current fair trade movement by addressing four pro... more This chapter aims to provide a snapshot of the current fair trade movement by addressing four provocative questions: 1) Fair trade for whom? 2) Fair trade by whom? 3) How may fair trade labeling and certification support these goals (or not)? and 4) What next for fair trade’s approach to capitalism and the state? For new readers, the chapter provides an introduction to fair trade that focuses primarily on the current moment. For readers more familiar with fair trade, it offers an updated summary of key debates in the field, drawing heavily on literature published in the last five years. This chapter also highlights linkages between fair trade and the environment. It describes the ways in which fair trade can support environmental conservation, raises questions about climate justice, and shows how certification programs can pit people against the planet, rather than supporting both. The following section provides basic background information on the fair trade movement.
Environmental movement organizations (EMOs) contribute to and benefit from political consumerism ... more Environmental movement organizations (EMOs) contribute to and benefit from political consumerism initiatives, such as voluntary sustainability certifi- cations (VSCs). Surprisingly, EMOs have avoided America’s fastest growing agricultural sector: newly legalized cannabis (marijuana). Drawing on qualita- tive mixed methods – interviews with cannabis supply chain actors and legalization advocates, industry event participation, desk-based research, and dispensary visits – I analyze the nine voluntary sustainability certifications that have emerged to facilitate political consumerism in the US cannabis market to identify the conditions under which EMOs eschew political consumerism, and the consequences thereof. EMOs may avoid ethical consumerism initiatives in countercultural sectors because endorsing stigmatized products/lifestyles or challenging existing ethical frames may create reputational risk. Without the expertise, accountability, and resources EMOs typically provide, VSCs may stagnate or ignore best practices of standards-setting, auditing, and govern- ance. Stigmatized sectors may be highly susceptible to industry capture, compromising the potential of political consumerism as a vehicle for environ- mental change.
Cannabis (marijuana) is the most commonly consumed, universally produced, and frequently traffick... more Cannabis (marijuana) is the most commonly consumed, universally produced, and frequently trafficked psychoactive substance prohibited under international drug control laws. Yet, several countries have recently moved toward legalization. In these places, the legal status of cannabis is complex, especially because illegal markets persist. This chapter explores the ways in which a sector’s legal status interacts with political consumerism. The analysis draws on a case study of political consumerism in the US and Canadian cannabis markets over the past two decades, as both countries moved toward legalization. It finds that the goals, tactics, and leadership of political consumerism activities changed as the sector’s legal status shifted. It suggests that prohibition, semi-legalization, and new legality may present special challenges to political consumerism, such as silencing producers, confusing consumers, deterring social movement organizations, and discouraging discourse about ethical issues. The chapter concludes that political consumerism and legal status may have deep import for one another.
Ethical consumerism theory aims to describe, explain, and evaluate the ways in which producers an... more Ethical consumerism theory aims to describe, explain, and evaluate the ways in which producers and consumers use the market to support social and environmental values. The literature draws insights from empirical studies of sectors that largely take place on the legal market, such as textiles and agri-food. This paper takes a first step toward theorizing ethical consumerism in semi-legal sectors where market activities occur legally and illegally. How does extant theory extend to sectors such as sex work, cigarettes, and recreational drugs? This study draws on the case of recreational cannabis (marijuana) in Portland, Oregon (USA). Data from 33 interviews, structured fieldwork at 64 dispensaries, and the US Census Bureau American Community Survey are analyzed using qualitative, quantitative, and spatial methods. The findings are compared to twelve suggestions that emerge from the literature on fair trade, organics, alternative agriculture, and political consumerism. I argue that not all ethical consumerism theory extends to semi-legal sectors. Cannabis closely resembles theoretical expectations in terms of supply/demand, prioritization of ethical issues, and pervasiveness of false claims, but differs in terms of who organizes, which types of strategies are pursued, and how ethical products are framed. The differences stem from several pervasive stigmas about cannabis. I also argue that the stigmas that set cannabis apart from other (more legal sectors) and present challenges to ethical consumerism in cannabis are directly related to the War on Drugs. These insights suggest that prohibition (and its lingering effects) can inhibit the emergence of ethical consumerism.
The sustainable development agenda has long been linked with social justice, income equality, and... more The sustainable development agenda has long been linked with social justice, income equality, and workers' rights. This article argues that voluntary sustainability standards-setting organizations (VSSSOs) can contribute to these goals by requiring employers to pay living wages and actively support collective bargaining. Examining the content of 25 voluntary sustainability standards (VSS) set by 16 systematically selected VSSSOs, this study finds that only 32% of VSS mandate a living wage, and only 16% rigorously support collective bargaining. It argues that supporting national minimum wages is helpful but not sufficient, examines sources of downward pressure on VSS, identifies potential explanations for variation among standards, and briefly describes a new initiative promoting living wage standards. While VSS are not a silver bullet for sustainable development or wage equity, VSSSOs are overlooking a significant opportunity to be a transformative part of a broader solution.
Researchers debate whether today’s Fairtrade mark honors or bastardizes the intentions of Fairtra... more Researchers debate whether today’s Fairtrade mark honors or bastardizes the intentions of Fairtrade pioneers. Their arguments are often based on assertions about Fairtrade governance, the complex system of processes and practices used to make high- level decisions about certifying Fairtrade. However, extant literature on how Fairtrade’s organizational structure and institutional norms have evolved lacks methodological rigor, explanatory accounts, and comprehensive detail. This chapter provides a historical narrative that improves upon these shortcomings. This research is based on data from four sources: literature from Fairtrade labeling organizations; academic publications; personal memoirs of key actors; and over 100 original interviews with a diverse spectrum of key actors. The interviewees provided feedback on the narrative, helping to vet this chapter as the first rigorous historical account of Fairtrade governance.
Today, Americans are simultaneously skeptical of and engaged with political life. How does widesp... more Today, Americans are simultaneously skeptical of and engaged with political life. How does widespread cynicism affect the culture of civic participation? What are the implications for democracy? This study synthesizes data from a one-year collective ethnography of seven civic groups and theoretical work on boundary making, ambiguity, and role distancing. The authors find skepticism generates “disavowal of the political,” a cultural idiom that allows people to creatively constitute what they imagine to be appropriate forms of engagement. Disavowal generates taboos, and the authors show how disdain for conflict and special interests challenges activism around inequality. Political disavowal both facilitates and constrains civic engagement in an era of political skepticism.
This article is organized as follows. The background section describes the case of newly legalize... more This article is organized as follows. The background section describes the case of newly legalized recreational marijuana. It introduces Portland, Oregon as a hub of ethical consumerism and environmental mobilization; outlines the status of recreational marijuana in Oregon and in the United States; highlights environmental issues related to the cannabis production; and describes an uptick in ethical consumerism of other recreational drugs in the United States. Next, the theoretical framework organizes extant research on political consumerism and suggests how this study may contribute to knowledge on emerging industries, the role of stigmas in framing, and power dynamics at the retail level of analysis. Following, the methodology section describes the three methods used in this study: qualitative analysis of internet research, networking, and semistructured interviews; quantitative analysis of data collected at a random sample of 64 dispensaries; and spatial and statistical analysis relating the dispensary findings to sociodemographic indicators. The findings section offers what the author believes to be the first account of ethical consumerism in the licit recreational marijuana sector. It demonstrates that there is, indeed, a nascent “political consumerism movement” in the licit, recreational marijuana sector. The movement is largely industrydriven and is marked by an absence of third sector actors (such as environmental NGOs, fair trade certification organizations, and agricultural justice advocates). Mobilization efforts are challenged by two distinct stigmas: cannabis cultivation as a “natural” (and thus necessarily environmentallyfriendly) process, and the marijuana industry as a “criminal” enterprise (which may deter potential allies). Interestingly, the distribution of “ethical” pot is quite consistent across neighborhoods of different socioeconomic compositionsin contrast to most ethicallyoriented products. The paper closes with a discussion of these findings, their implications, and suggestions for further research.
For decades, workers have flocked to Northern California and Southern Oregon to help with the fal... more For decades, workers have flocked to Northern California and Southern Oregon to help with the fall cannabis harvest. Some are migrants who include the crop on their seasonal tour. Others are driven by an interest in cannabis culture, or by the promise of lucrative pay for low-skilled work.1 While some cannabis workers (or “trimmers”) have had pleasant, safe and profitable experiences, many, as described above, have not.
‘Fair trade’ has emerged over recent decades as a buzzword used by social scientists, socially co... more ‘Fair trade’ has emerged over recent decades as a buzzword used by social scientists, socially conscious businesses, international development practitioners, social movement activists and ethically minded consumers. As a concept, fair trade refers to a critique of the historical inequalities inherent in international trade and to a belief that trade can be made more socially just. This notion is increasingly linked to a set of concrete initiatives that challenge global inequalities and create more egalitarian commodity networks, linking marginalized producers in the global South with progressive consumers in the global North. In moving from abstract concept to grounded practice, fair trade works to transform international trade from a vehicle of exploitation to an avenue of empowerment. In the global South, fair trade seeks to enhance wellbeing – by fostering higher prices and wages, stable markets and employment, better work conditions and environmental sustainability – and to bolster individual and collective capacities – by strengthening information exchanges, social service access, opportunities for self-determination and local organizations. In the global North, fair trade seeks to bolster more equitable trade policies, business models and consumption practices by making available a range of goods that are produced under more socially just and environmentally sustainable conditions...
The trend of civic innovation in contemporary activism relies much on modern tools of communicati... more The trend of civic innovation in contemporary activism relies much on modern tools of communication as a quasi-corporate way to confront contemporary social issues. But, the authors explain, activism that is agnostic about outcomes reifies privilege, discourages dissent and raw emotion, and falls short of addressing the most pressing issues of our time. Civic engagement today is different than in the past. Many contemporary activists eschew sit-ins, picket lines, and paper petitions, stalwart organizing techniques of 1960s civil rights activists. Instead, today's civic innovators push us to " like " neighborhood associations on Facebook, tweet at elected officials during city council meetings, send feedback to government agencies via new mobile apps, and donate funds through online crowdsourcing platforms. Unlike their counter-culture predecessors, they don't shun private-sector ideas but instead borrow concepts and language from the business world. Civic innovators self-identify as entrepreneurial, innovative, and efficient. Civic innovation is bolstered by NGOs, universities, and the state. NGOs increasingly hire digital media gurus and do their development and campaign work online; a growing number of universities offer programs in social entrepreneurship; and local governments have developed online portals for citizen feedback (think digital-era suggestions boxes). According to civic innovators, new ideas and technologies encourage people who would otherwise turn away from politics to participate in local governance. But what do these new forms of civic engagement mean for democratic life? What are the potentials and the pitfalls of civic innovation?
Voluntary Sustainability Standards-Setting Organizations (VSSSOs) create standards to improve the... more Voluntary Sustainability Standards-Setting Organizations (VSSSOs) create standards to improve the social and/or envi- ronmental impacts of globalized production networks. VSSSOs are often assumed to have multi-stakeholder governance structures that include the producers of certified products (e.g., farmers, artisans, and workers). This article argues that including producers in gover- nance is desirable. However, analysis of 33 VSSSOs’ constitutions shows two-thirds do not even imply intention to include producers. At most, 25% ensure producers have votes/seats and 18% give producers veto power. The discussion examines what is lost when VSSSOs do not bring traditionally marginalized voices to global economic governance.
The fair trade movement aims to alleviate poverty and empower producers. This means working along... more The fair trade movement aims to alleviate poverty and empower producers. This means working alongside farmers and workers as a team. This guest blog from Lewis & Clark College professor and fair trade researcher Elizabeth Bennett discusses why it’s important to include producers, and what you can do to advocate for this best practice.
Voluntary standards-setting organizations are not neutral entities. They are political constructi... more Voluntary standards-setting organizations are not neutral entities. They are political constructions in which actors’ interests play out and power dynamics shape outcomes. The standards they create are likewise not simple derivatives of scientific evidence or aggregates of professional expertise but instead the products of political negotiation. In private regulatory bodies, as in all political arenas, the good and the awful manage to coexist, and the outcomes are just as subject to manipulation by powerful actors as in any other realm of global politics.
The chapter proceeds as follows. First a background section positions this analysis in relation to relevant fair trade studies. Next the data and methods section describes the collection and synthesis of over 17000 archival documents and more than 100 interviews with Fairtrade leaders and participants. Then an empirical section describes producers’ partici- pation in Fairtrade International governance from 1988 to 2014. It is presented in five time periods: label creation (1988–1995); label prolifer- ation (1992–1997); label unification and development (1997–2005); producers as members (2005–2011); and producers as equal owners (2011–2014).3 The discussion argues that the new structure could be pivotal in shifting Fairtrade outcomes, and it identifies key variables that shape the policy-making process. Some of the policy-making challenges were generated by Fairtrade International’s extended period of excluding producers, while others are broadly experienced, enduring problems in governance. The chapter closes with suggestions for future research and by emphasizing the value of including marginalized voices in private regulatory regimes.
From June of 2010 to July of 2011, four colleagues and I conducted a collective ethnographic stud... more From June of 2010 to July of 2011, four colleagues and I conducted a collective ethnographic study of civic culture. The Civic Imagination (Paradigm Publishers 2013) is a report of our findings, a snapshot of civic life in America, and a discussion of contemporary political culture, based on our experiences in Providence, Rhode Island.
We recount a year in the lives of activists striving to make their city a better place. Those activists are part of seven civic groups, chosen for their diversity of interests, constituencies, tactics, and organizational forms. They generously allowed us into their work and their lives, and the book is motivated by the themes that emerged in this ethnographic field research.
Most significantly, where we expected to find cynicism, apathy, and individualistic commitments, we instead encountered reflective, sober, and tremendously hopeful citizens. On one hand, we heard repeatedly that the political system is broken, and grew accustomed to the common refrains, “I’m not political,” and “I don’t see my work as political.” On the other, we learned that these discourses were not necessarily signals of political disengagement, but instead part of a more complicated relationship with political life.
We were also attentive to the stark differences in how groups paid attention to (or ignored) inequality, both as a social problem to be solved and as an issue that plagues civic groups themselves. While inequality was central to the work of some organizations, it was more commonly a blind spot—something removed from the forefront of attention, or readily overlooked—and we discuss these observations from a more normative perspective, reflecting our own value of equality.
The Civic Imagination explores the contours of these complex relations—between citizens and their democracy, skepticism and engagement, and inequality and activism. It is written for several audiences—a chapter-length methodological appendix and extensive footnotes are meant to satisfy the curiosities and critical eye of academics and graduate students, while the prose, theory, and stories are plainly written for the undergraduate student or lay reader to digest with thoughtful ease.
About the volume: Fair trade critiques the historical inequalities inherent in international trad... more About the volume: Fair trade critiques the historical inequalities inherent in international trade and seeks to promote social justice by creating alternative networks linking marginalized producers in the global South with progressive consumers in the North. The first of its kind, this volume brings together 43 of the world’s foremost fair trade scholars from across the social sciences to synthesize existing research, evaluate key debates and identify critical questions. The Handbook serves as both a comprehensive overview and in-depth guide to dominant perspectives and concerns. Chapters analyze the rapidly growing fair trade movement and market, exploring diverse initiatives and organizations, production and consumption regions, and food and cultural products. Written for those new to fair trade as well as those well versed in this domain, the Handbook is an invaluable resource for scholars and practitioners interested in global regulation, multi-stakeholder initiatives, ethical labeling, social and environmental certification, consumer activism, and international development.
Part I, ‘Introduction’, provides an overview of fair trade, analyzing fair trade as a movement and market and focusing on the complex and contested nature of dominant institutions, market relations, commodity networks and production conditions. Part II, ‘The fair trade movement’, examines the varied forces which have historically shaped fair trade activism and organizations. It highlights the complexities, controversies and contradictions that have generated both innovation and fragmentation within the movement. Part III, ‘The Business of Fair Trade’, examines how the vision of fair trade has been put into practice, paying close attention to the dynamics of ethical labeling, the strategies of firms, the role of market forces and shifting consumption patterns. Part IV, ‘Fair Trade and International Development’, examines the implications of fair trade for diverse producers and their communities. Typically focusing on a single region, commodity or development objective, each chapter offers a unique perspective on the efficacy of fair trade as a vehicle for development in the global South.
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A commentary on J. Grabs (2020) Selling Sustainability Short? The Private Governance of Labor and the Environment in the Coffee Sector, Cambridge University Press.
harvest. Some are migrants who include the crop on their seasonal tour. Others are driven by an interest in cannabis culture, or by the promise of lucrative pay for low-skilled work.1 While some cannabis workers (or “trimmers”) have had pleasant, safe and profitable experiences, many, as described above, have not.
The chapter proceeds as follows. First a background section positions this analysis in relation to relevant fair trade studies. Next the data and methods section describes the collection and synthesis of over 17000 archival documents and more than 100 interviews with Fairtrade leaders and participants. Then an empirical section describes producers’ partici- pation in Fairtrade International governance from 1988 to 2014. It is presented in five time periods: label creation (1988–1995); label prolifer- ation (1992–1997); label unification and development (1997–2005); producers as members (2005–2011); and producers as equal owners (2011–2014).3 The discussion argues that the new structure could be pivotal in shifting Fairtrade outcomes, and it identifies key variables that shape the policy-making process. Some of the policy-making challenges were generated by Fairtrade International’s extended period of excluding producers, while others are broadly experienced, enduring problems in governance. The chapter closes with suggestions for future research and by emphasizing the value of including marginalized voices in private regulatory regimes.
A commentary on J. Grabs (2020) Selling Sustainability Short? The Private Governance of Labor and the Environment in the Coffee Sector, Cambridge University Press.
harvest. Some are migrants who include the crop on their seasonal tour. Others are driven by an interest in cannabis culture, or by the promise of lucrative pay for low-skilled work.1 While some cannabis workers (or “trimmers”) have had pleasant, safe and profitable experiences, many, as described above, have not.
The chapter proceeds as follows. First a background section positions this analysis in relation to relevant fair trade studies. Next the data and methods section describes the collection and synthesis of over 17000 archival documents and more than 100 interviews with Fairtrade leaders and participants. Then an empirical section describes producers’ partici- pation in Fairtrade International governance from 1988 to 2014. It is presented in five time periods: label creation (1988–1995); label prolifer- ation (1992–1997); label unification and development (1997–2005); producers as members (2005–2011); and producers as equal owners (2011–2014).3 The discussion argues that the new structure could be pivotal in shifting Fairtrade outcomes, and it identifies key variables that shape the policy-making process. Some of the policy-making challenges were generated by Fairtrade International’s extended period of excluding producers, while others are broadly experienced, enduring problems in governance. The chapter closes with suggestions for future research and by emphasizing the value of including marginalized voices in private regulatory regimes.
We recount a year in the lives of activists striving to make their city a better place. Those activists are part of seven civic groups, chosen for their diversity of interests, constituencies, tactics, and organizational forms. They generously allowed us into their work and their lives, and the book is motivated by the themes that emerged in this ethnographic field research.
Most significantly, where we expected to find cynicism, apathy, and individualistic commitments, we instead encountered reflective, sober, and tremendously hopeful citizens. On one hand, we heard repeatedly that the political system is broken, and grew accustomed to the common refrains, “I’m not political,” and “I don’t see my work as political.” On the other, we learned that these discourses were not necessarily signals of political disengagement, but instead part of a more complicated relationship with political life.
We were also attentive to the stark differences in how groups paid attention to (or ignored) inequality, both as a social problem to be solved and as an issue that plagues civic groups themselves. While inequality was central to the work of some organizations, it was more commonly a blind spot—something removed from the forefront of attention, or readily overlooked—and we discuss these observations from a more normative perspective, reflecting our own value of equality.
The Civic Imagination explores the contours of these complex relations—between citizens and their democracy, skepticism and engagement, and inequality and activism. It is written for several audiences—a chapter-length methodological appendix and extensive footnotes are meant to satisfy the curiosities and critical eye of academics and graduate students, while the prose, theory, and stories are plainly written for the undergraduate student or lay reader to digest with thoughtful ease.
Part I, ‘Introduction’, provides an overview of fair trade, analyzing fair trade as a movement and market and focusing on the complex and contested nature of dominant institutions, market relations, commodity networks and production conditions. Part II, ‘The fair trade movement’, examines the varied forces which have historically shaped fair trade activism and organizations. It highlights the complexities, controversies and contradictions that have generated both innovation and fragmentation within the movement. Part III, ‘The Business of Fair Trade’, examines how the vision of fair trade has been put into practice, paying close attention to the dynamics of ethical labeling, the strategies of firms, the role of market forces and shifting consumption patterns. Part IV, ‘Fair Trade and International Development’, examines the implications of fair trade for diverse producers and their communities. Typically focusing on a single region, commodity or development objective, each chapter offers a unique perspective on the efficacy of fair trade as a vehicle for development in the global South.